Advanced nutrition and human metabolism

Tidligere: 4. udg. 2005

Chapter 1. The Cell: A Microcosm of Life, 1 Components of Typical Cells, 2 Plasma Membrane, 2 Cytoplasmic Matrix, 4 Mitochondrion, 6 Nucleus, 8 Endoplasmic Reticulum and Golgi Apparatus, 10 Lysosomes and Peroxisomes, 11 Cellular Proteins, 12 Receptors and Intracellular Signaling, 12 Transport Proteins, 14 Catalytic Proteins (Enzymes), 15 Pratical Clinical Application of Cellular Enzymes, 17 Apoptosis, 19 Programmed Death, 19 Potential Mechanisms, 19 Biological Energy, 20 Energy Release and Consumption in Chemical Reactions, 21 Units of Energy, 21 The Role of High-Energy Phosphate in Energy Storage, 24 Coupled Reactions in the Transfer of Energy, 25 Reduction Potentials, 26 Summary, 27 PERSPECTIVE: Nutritional Genomics: The Foundation for Personalized Nutrition, 29 Chapter 2. The Digestive System: Mechanism for Nourishing the Body, 33 The Structures of the Digestive Tract and the Digestive Process, 33 The Oral Cavity, 35 The Esophagus, 36 The Stomach, 38 The Small Intestine, 43 The Accessory Organs, 46 The Digestive and Absorptive Processes, 51 The Colon or Large Intestine, 53 Coordination and Regulation of the Digestive Process, 55 Neural Regulation

55 Regulatory Peptides, 56 Summary, 57 PERSPECTIVE: An Overview of Selected Digestive System Disorders with Implications for Nourishing the Body, 59 Section II. Macronutrients and Their Metabolism, 63 Chapter 3. Carbohydrates, 63Structural Features, 63 Simple Carbohydrates, 64 Monosaccharides, 64 Disaccharides, 67 Complex Carbohydrates, 68 Oligosaccharides, 68 Polysaccharides, 68 Digestion, 68 Digestion of Polysaccharides, 69 Digestion of Disaccharides, 71 Absorption, Transport, and Distribution, 71 Absorption of Glucose and Galactose, 71 Absorption of Fructose, 71 Monosaccharide Transport and Cellular Uptake, 72 Glucose Transporters, 72 Insulin, 74 Maintenance of Blood Glucose Levels, 75 Glycemic Response to Carbohydrates, 76 Glycemic Index, 76 Glycemic Load, 76 Integrated Metabolism in Tissues, 78 Glycogenesis, 78 Glycogenolysis, 80 Glycolysis, 82 Substrate-Level Phosphorylation, 85 The Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle, 85 Formation of ATP, 89 The Hexosemonophosphate Shunt (Pentose Phosphate Pathway), 95 Gluconeogenesis, 97 Regulation of Metabolism, 99 Allosteric Enzyme Modulation, 100 Regulatory Effect of NADH:NAD+ Ratio, 100

Chapter 5. Lipids, 131 Structure and Biological Importance, 132 Fatty Acids, 132 Triacylglycerols (Triglycerides), 134 Sterols and Steroids, 135 Phospholipids, 137 Glycolipids, 139 Digestion, 140 Triacylglycerol Digestion, 140 Cholesterol and Phospholipid Digestion, 142 Absorption, 143 Transport and Storage, 144 Lipoproteins, 144 Role of the Liver and Adipose Tissue in Lipid Metabolism, 147 Metabolism of Lipoproteins, 149 Lipids, Lipoproteins, and Cardiovascular Disease Risk, 154 Cholesterol, 154 Saturated and Unsaturated Fatty Acids, 155 Trans Fatty Acids, 156 Lipoprotein a, 156 Apolipoprotein E, 157 Integrated Metabolism in Tissues, 157 Catabolism of Triacylglycerols and Fatty Acids, 157 Energy Considerations in Fatty Acid Oxidation, 158 Formation of the Ketone Bodies, 159 Catabolism of Cholesterol, 161 Synthesis of Fatty Acids, 161 Synthesis of Triacylglycerols (Triglycerides), 166 Synthesis of Cholesterol, 166 Regulation of Lipid Metabolism, 167 Brown Fat Thermogenesis, 168 Therapeutic Inhibition of Fat Absorption: Olestra and Orlistat, 169 Ethyl Alcohol: Metabolism and Biochemical Impact, 170 The Alcohol Dehydrogenase (ADH) Pathway, 170

The Microsomal Ethanol Oxidizing System (MEOS), 171 Alcoholism: Biochemical and Metabolic Alterations, 171 Alcohol in Moderation: The Brighter Side, 173 Summary, 173 PERSPECTIVE: The Role of Lipids and Lipoproteins in Atherogenesis, 176 Chapter 6. Protein, 179 Functional Categories, 179 Catalysts, 179Messengers, 180 Structural Elements, 180 Immunoprotectors, 180 Transporters, 181 Buffers, 181 Fluid Balancers, 181 Other Roles, 181 Protein Structure and Organization, 182 Primary Structure, 182 Secondary Structure, 183 Tertiary Structure, 184 Quaternary Structure, 184 Amino Acid Classification, 184 Structure, 184 Net Electrical Charge, 186 Polarity, 188 Essentiality, 188 Sources of Protein, 189 Digestion and Absorption, 189 Protein Digestion, 189 Intestinal Brush Border Membrane Amino Acid and Peptide Absorption, 191 Intestinal Basolateral Membrane Transport of Amino Acids, 194 Intestinal Cell Amino Acid Use, 194 Amino Acid Absorption into Extraintestinal Tissues, 196 Amino Acid Metabolism, 198

Synthesis of Plasma Proteins, Nitrogen-Containing Nonprotein Compounds, and Purine and Pyrimidine Bases, 198 Protein Synthesis Overview, 206 Amino Acid Catabolism Overview, 208 Hepatic Catabolism and Uses of Aromatic Amino Acids, 213 Hepatic Catabolism and Uses of Sulfur (S)-Containing Amino Acids, 216 Hepatic Catabolism and Uses of the Branched-Chain Amino Acids, 218 Hepatic Catabolism and Uses of Other Amino Acids, 218 Amino Acids Not Taken Up by the Liver: Plasma Amino Acids and Amino Acid Pool(s), 221 Interorgan "Flow" of Amino Acids and Organ-Specific Metabolism, 222 Glutamine and the Liver, Kidneys, and Intestine, 222 Alanine and the Liver and Muscle, 223 Skeletal Muscle, 223 Kidneys, 228 Brain and Accessory Tissues, 229 Protein Turnover: Synthesis and Catabolism of Tissue Proteins, 232 Cellular Protein Degradation Systems, 232 Changes in Body Mass with Age, 234 Protein Quality and Protein Intake, 237 Evaluation of Protein Quality, 237 Protein Information on Food Labels, 240 Recommended Protein and Amino Acid Intakes, 240 Protein Deficiency/Malnutrition, 242 Summary

242 PERSPECTIVE: Protein Turnover: Starvation Compared with Stress, 246 Chapter 7. Integration and Regulation of Metabolism and the Impact of Exercise and Sport, 251 Interrelationship of Carbohydrate, Lipid, and Protein Metabolism, 251 The Central Role of the Liver in Metabolism, 254 Tissue-Specific Metabolism during the Fed-Fast Cycle, 256 Carbohydrate and Lipid Metabolism, 256 Amino Acid Metabolism, 260 System Integration and Homeostasis, 261 Endocrine Function in Fed State, 262 Endocrine Function in Postabsorptive or Fasting State, 262 Metabolic Syndrome, 264 Insulin Resistance, 264 Weight Loss and Insulin Insensitivity, 264 Sports Nutrition, 265 Biochemical Assessment of Physical Exertion, 265Energy Sources during Exercise, 266 Carbohydrate Supplementation (Supercompensation), 270 Diets for Exercise, 270 Nutritional Ergogenic Aids, 272 Summary, 274 PERSPECTIVE: Diabetes: Metabolism Out of Control, 276 Chapter 8. Body Composition, Energy Expenditure, and Energy Balance, 279 Body Weight: What Should We Weigh?, 279 Body Mass Index, 279 Formulas, 280 The Composition of the Human Body, 282 Methods for Measuring Body Composition, 283

Anthropometry, 283 Densitometry/Hydrodensitometry, 284 Air-Displacement Plethysmography, 285 Absorptiometry, 285 Computerized (Axial) Tomography (CAT or CT), 286 Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI), 286 Total Body Electrical Conductivity (TOBEC), 286 Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis (BIA), 286 Ultrasonography or Ultrasound, 287 Infrared Interactance, 287 Total Body Water (TBW), 287 Total Body Potassium (TBK), 288 Neutron Activation Analysis, 288 Overview of Methods, 288Energy Balance, 290 Prevalance of Obesity, 290 Components of Energy Expenditure, 291 Basal Metabolic Rate and Resting Energy Expenditure, 291 Thermic Effect of Food, 292 Energy Expenditure of Physical Activity, 292 Thermoregulation, 292 Assessing Energy Expenditure, 292 Direct Calorimetry, 292 Indirect Calorimetry, 293 Doubly Labeled Water, 295 Derived Formulas, 296 Regulation of Body Weight and Composition, 298 Genetic Influences, 299 Hormonal Influences, 299

Positive Energy Balance, 300 Negative Energy Balance, 300 Summary, 301 PERSPECTIVE: Eating Disorders, 303 Section III. The Regulatory Nutrients, 309 Chapter 9. The Water-Soluble Vitamins, 309 Vitamin C (Ascorbic Acid), 311 Sources, 312 Digestion, Absorption, Transport, and Storage, 312 Functions and Mechanisms of Action, 314 Interactions with Other Nutrients, 318 Metabolism and Excretion, 319 Recommended Dietary Allowance, 319 Deficiency, 320 Toxicity, 320 Assessment of Nutriture, 320 Thiamin (Vitamin B1), 323 Sources, 323 Digestion, Absorption, Transport, and Storage, 323 Functions and Mechanisms of Action, 324 Metabolism and Excretion, 326 Recommended Dietary Allowance, 326 Deficiency: Beriberi, 327 Toxicity, 328 Assessment of Nutriture, 328 Riboflavin (Vitamin B2), 329 Sources, 330 Digestion, Absorption, Transport, and Storage, 330 Functions and Mechanisms of Action, 331 Metabolism and Excretion, 332 Recommended Dietary Allowance, 332 Deficiency: Ariboflavinosis, 332 Toxicity, 333 Assessment of Nutriture, 333 Niacin (Vitamin B3), 334 Sources, 334 Digestion, Absorption, Transport, and Storage, 335

Functions and Mechanisms of Action, 335 Metabolism and Excretion, 336 Recommended Dietary Allowance, 336 Deficiency: Pellagra, 337Toxicity, 337 Assessment of Nutriture, 338 Pantothenic Acid, 338 Sources, 339 Digestion, Absorption, Transport, and Storage, 339 Functions and Mechanisms of Action, 340 Metabolism and Excretion, 342 Adequate Intake, 342 Deficiency: Burning Feet Syndrome, 342 Toxicity, 342 Assessment of Nutriture, 342 Biotin, 342 Sources, 343 Digestion, Absorption, Transport, and Storage, 343 Functions and Mechanisms of Action, 344 Metabolism and Excretion, 347 Adequate Intake, 347 Deficiency, 347

Toxicity, 348 Assessment of Nutriture, 348 Folate, 348 Sources, 349 Digestion, Absorption, Transport, and Storage, 349 Functions and Mechanisms of Action, 351 Interactions with Other Nutrients, 354 Metabolism and Excretion, 355 Recommended Dietary Allowance, 355 Deficiency: Megaloblastic Macrocytic Anemia, 355 Toxicity, 357 Assessment of Nutriture, 357 Vitamin B12 (Cobalamin), 358 Sources, 359 Digestion, Absorption, Transport, and Storage, 359 Functions and Mechanisms of Action, 360 Metabolism and Excretion, 361 Recommended Dietary Allowance, 361 Deficiency: Megaloblastic Macrocytic Anemia, 362 Toxicity, 363 Assessment of Nutriture, 363 Vitamin B6, 364 Sources, 364 Digestion, Absorption, Transport, and Storage, 365 Functions and Mechanisms of Action, 365 Metabolism and Excretion, 368 Recommended Dietary Allowance, 368 Deficiency, 368 Toxicity, 368 Assessment of Nutriture, 368 PERSPECTIVE: Genetics and Nutrition: The Possible Effect on Folate Needs and Risk of Chronic Disease, 370

Chapter 10. The Fat-Soluble Vitamins, 373 Vitamin A and Carotenoids, 373 Sources, 374 Digestion and Absorption, 375 Transport, Metabolism, and Storage, 379 Functions and Mechanisms of Action, 381 Interactions with Other Nutrients, 388 Metabolism and Excretion, 388 Recommended Dietary Allowance, 388 Deficiency, 389 Toxicity: Hypervitaminosis A, 389 Assessment of Nutriture, 390 Vitamin D, 392 Sources, 392 Absorption, Transport, and Storage, 392 Functions and Mechanisms of Action, 395 Interactions with Other Nutrients, 399 Metabolism and Excretion, 399 Adequate Intake, 399 Deficiency: Rickets and Osteomalacia, 399 Toxicity, 400 Assessment of Nutriture, 400 Vitamin E, 401 Sources, 401 Digestion, Absorption, Transport, and Storage, 403 Functions and Mechanisms of Action, 403 Interactions with Other Nutrients, 406 Metabolism and Excretion, 407 Recommended Dietary Allowance, 407 Deficiency, 407 Toxicity, 408 Assessment of Nutriture, 408 Vitamin K, 409 Sources, 410 Absorption, Transport, and Storage, 410 Functions and Mechanisms of Action, 411 Interactions with Other Nutrients, 414 Metabolism and Excretion, 414 Adequate Intake, 414

Deficiency, 415 Toxicity, 415Assessment of Nutriture, 415 PERSPECTIVE: The Antioxidant Nutrients, Reactive Species, and Disease, 417 Chapter 11. Macrominerals, 429 Calcium, 431 Sources, 431 Digestion, Absorption, and Transport, 431 Functions and Mechanisms of Action, 435 Interactions with Other Nutrients, 438 Excretion, 439 Adequate Intake, 440 Deficiency, 440 Toxicity, 441 Assessment of Nutriture, 441 Phosphorus, 443 Sources, 443 Digestion, Absorption, Transport, and Storage, 443 Functions and Mechanisms of Action, 444 Excretion, 446 Recommended Dietary Allowance, 446 Deficiency, 446 Toxicity, 446 Assessment of Nutriture, 446 Magnesium, 447 Sources, 447 Absorption and Transport, 447 Functions and Mechanisms of Action, 448 Interactions with Other Nutrients, 449 Excretion, 450 Recommended Dietary Allowance, 450 Deficiency, 450 Toxicity, 450 Assessment of Nutriture, 451

Sodium, 452 Sources, 452 Absorption, Transport, and Function, 452 Interactions with Other Nutrients, 453 Excretion, 453 Deficiency, 453 Adequate Intake and Assessment of Nutriture, 453 Potassium, 454 Sources, 454 Absorption, Transport, and Function, 455 Interactions with Other Nutrients, 455 Excretion, 455 Deficiency and Toxicity, 455 Adequate Intake and Assessment of Nutriture, 455 Chloride, 456 Sources, 456 Absorption, Transport, and Secretion, 456 Functions, 456 Excretion, 457 Deficiency, 457 Adequate Intake and Assessment of Nutriture, 457 PERSPECTIVE: Macrominerals and Hypertension, 458 PERSPECTIVE: Osteoporosis and Diet, 461 Chapter 12. Microminerals, 469 Iron, 470 Sources, 470 Digestion, Absorption, Transport, Storage, and Uptake, 472 Functions and Mechanisms of Action, 479 Interactions with Other Nutrients, 483 Excretion, 484 Recommended Dietary Allowance, 485 Deficiency: Iron Deficiency with and without Anemia, 485 Supplements, 485 Toxicity: Hemochromatosis, 486 Assessment of Nutriture, 487 Zinc, 488 Sources, 488 Digestion, Absorption, Transport, Uptake, and Storage, 489 Functions and Mechanisms of Action, 493

Interactions with Other Nutrients, 495 Excretion, 495Recommended Dietary Allowance, 496 Deficiency, 496 Supplements, 496 Toxicity, 496 Assessment of Nutriture, 496 Copper, 498 Sources, 498 Digestion, Absorption, Transport, Uptake, and Storage, 498 Functions and Mechanisms of Action, 501 Interactions with Other Nutrients, 503 Excretion, 503 Recommended Dietary Allowance, 504 Deficiency, 504 Toxicity, 504 Supplements, 504 Assessment of Nutriture, 505 Selenium, 506 Sources, 506 Absorption, Transport, Uptake, Storage, and Metabolism, 506 Functions and Mechanisms of Action, 509 Interactions with Other Nutrients, 511 Excretion, 511 Recommended Dietary Allowance, 511 Deficiency, 511 Toxicity, 512 Assessment of Nutriture, 512 Chromium, 513 Sources, 513 Absorption, Transport, and Storage, 513 Functions and Mechanisms of Action, 514 Interactions with Other Nutrients, 515 Excretion, 515

Adequate Intake, 515 Deficiency, 515 Supplements, 515 Toxicity, 516 Assessment of Nutriture, 516 Iodine, 517 Sources, 517 Digestion, Absorption, Transport, and Storage, 517 Functions and Mechanisms of Action, 518 Interactions with Other Nutrients, 520 Excretion, 520 Recommended Dietary Allowance, 520 Deficiency, 520 Toxicity, 521 Assessment of Nutriture, 521 Manganese, 522 Sources, 522 Absorption, Transport, and Storage, 522 Functions and Mechanisms of Action, 523 Interactions with Other Nutrients, 524 Excretion, 524 Adequate Intake, 524 Deficiency, 524 Toxicity, 524 Assessment of Nutriture, 525 Molybdenum, 525 Sources, 526 Absorption, Transport, and Storage, 526 Functions and Mechanisms of Action, 526 Interactions with Other Nutrients, 528 Excretion, 528 Recommended Dietary Allowance, 528 Deficiency, 528 Toxicity, 529 Assessment of Nutriture, 529 Fluoride, 529 Sources, 529

Problems and Pitfalls in Research, 570 Evaluation of Research and Scientific Literature, 571 Nutrition Research on the Internet, 571