and inveterate enemies, in whatever colour they may be clad, the men who stand up as apologists of large standing armies; who, under some pretext or other, feed the fire of national enmities; or who, with their mouths full of false patriotism, strive to excite a feeling that the interests of nations are opposed to one another.' We should have pity for those States whose only means of maintaining peace and order are standing armies ready to overawe the people; and should have contempt for a sovereign who, by the aid of physical force, succeeds in curbing the aspirations of a people, and in depriving them of their most sacred rights and privileges. But it is egregious folly to pursue a policy so injurious to our best interests. Let us give heed to the cost of such armies, to the loss they entail of property and human life, and to the abstraction of so many men in the prime of life from agriculture, commerce, and the arts. We should ever remember the words of Sir James Mackintosh, that 'small peace establishments, old English liberty, a people fearlessly discussing all principles and measures of Government, a House of Commons jealous of the power of the sword, tenacious of the power of the of the purse, have given these islands happiness and greatness.'

The present army expenditure, though large in the aggregate, is, we fear, scarcely capable of much reduction. Nothing certainly can be taken from the pay and allowances. The entire expenditure for the effective army represents an average cost of 90l. per man. The average pay of the general staff is about 350l., of the commissariat, 250l., and of the medical, 215l.

The

average pay, exclusive of military allowances, of noncommissioned officers is only 387., and of the rank and file, 20l. per annum. The ordinary wages of privates are indeed but poor compensation for a life of hardship and danger undertaken on behalf of the country. At a time when the demands for labour and industry are so numerous and pressing, and when the gold diggings in Australia, the backwoods of the United States, and the vast fields of Canada, side by side with our farms, our mines, and our factories, are outbidding each other for labourers, far higher, indeed, must be the prize and reward offered ere the military profession can invite even the refuse of the people. Nor are other ranks in the army better rewarded, when we consider the hard conditions at which commissions are obtainable, and the little chances of promotion when left to pure merit, irrespective of privilege and purchase. The army expenditure is spread over a thousand channels, and any economy to be effected must depend on the care of the administration of the various funds, and above all, on the discretion and wisdom exercised by those who hold the reins of the State.

The following is the amount of army, ordnance, and commissariat expenditure since 1801:

THE

CHAPTER VI.

THE NAVY EXPENDITURE.

Defi

HE national defence of Britain is more especially entrusted to those magnificent vessels which, like armed towers, swiftly cross the ocean, and are able to bring war and destruction to the farthest shores. cient in many respects in her armies, as compared with the leading Powers of Europe, it is on the sea that the strength of Britain principally rests, and though met by the strenuous efforts of France to increase her naval forces, and of the United States to excel in her tonnage of merchant ships, Britain has always succeeded in maintaining her position as the greatest naval power in the world.

The progress and achievements of the British Navy date from a very early period. During the war with France and Spain, which ended by the treaty of Paris in 1763, the British navy consisted of 412 ships, of which 133 were ships of the line. The average number of seamen was about 70,000, and the amount voted as much as 5,000,000l. But in the ten years' peace which followed, our naval forces suffered great reductions, and the sum voted in 1775 was only 1,700,000l. This was the lowest amount ever voted for the navy. The wars with France, America, Spain, and Holland, which

commenced in 1774 and terminated in 1783, animated once more the energies of the nation; and after a brief lull, the wars of the French Revolution and with France and America, rendered an immense expansion inevitable. In 1813 Britain possessed upwards of 1200 ships, and nigh 140,000 seamen, involving an expenditure of 23,000,000l. So large an expenditure in addition to that required for the army and ordnance was not, however, allowed to continue one day longer than absolutely required, and immediately on the restoration of peace the number of ships was reduced to 500 and 600, and the average expenditure to 6,000,000l. During the decennium 1830 to 1840, still further reductions were made. But the Russian war brought the navy expenditure again as high as 20,000,000l., and now, at a time of perfect peace with almost all the world, the sum required for the navy is 13,000,000l.

A perilous rivalry with France is the main cause of this immense increase in the navy expenditure in time of peace; but other circumstances must be taken into account. First, there is the wear and tear of the ships, and the constant need of repairs and new ships. At the end of fifteen years, on an average, the hull of each ship requires a complete and expensive repair, and the duration of a ship cannot be estimated at more than thirty years. This causes the want of a large number of artificers and of a great quantity of stores, materials, &c., such as masts, yards and rigging. In our dockyards and steam factories there are as many as 19,000 persons daily at work; most of whom being skilled workmen, are receiving very liberal wages. The substitution of

steam for sailing ships* has also necessitated a considerable increase in the size and strength of ships of every class, in order to provide for the additional weight of steam-engines, boilers, and coals, besides the expense of constructing and repairing steam-machinery, replacing boilers, and providing coals for steam-vessels.

This year provision must be made for 66,000 seamen, 18,000 marines, and 1400 civilians of the Coast. guard service; and the wages, though amounting to upwards of 3,000,000l., are, indeed, excessively moderate. The pay of an able seaman engaged for continuous service is 18. 7d. per day, and that of commissioned officers averages no more than 200l. per annum. The victuals for such men amounts to 1,500,000l. This is three times the amount spent in 1852, but we must remember that the prices of provisions, such as beef, biscuit, sugar, &c., have greatly increased of late years. The cost of the Admiralty office has also increased in consequence of the greater addition of business in this department.

But, whilst the effective services are on the whole underpaid, too liberal provision appears to be made for the non-effective services-viz., the half-pay, reserved half-pay, and retirement to officers of the navy and royal marines. There are three classes of officers thus rewarded. First, those on the active list, which, including 1273 officers, receives together upwards of 230,000l. Second, the reserved list, including 984

*Since 1848 as many as 354 steam-vessels have been added to the navy.