Pope Gregory XI. to require of him that he would forbear any further interference, with a reservation of benefices. The result of this commission was very unsatisfactory, and the commons, in parliament, therefore renewed the request, that "remedy be provided against the provisions of the pope, whereby he reaps the first-fruits of ecclesiastical dignities, the treasure of the realm being thereby conveyed away, which they cannot bear:" and an act was passed, that cathedral churches should enjoy their own elections; and that, for the future, the king should not write against the persons so elected, but rather, by his letters, endeavour their confirmation, if there should be occasion. Such measure being, however, unsatisfactory, the king issued out a commission for taking a survey of all benefices which were then in the hands of aliens; and their number appearing to be very great, in 1374, the king appointed other ambassadors to go to the pope, to treat with him on the same affairs on which he had sent ambassadors to him the year before:-one of those ambassadors was Wickliffe. In the treaty with the pope, which lasted two years, he was much engaged; and it was at length concluded, that, for the future, the pope should desist from making use of reservations of benefices, and that the king should no more confer benefices by his writ; though, in the following year, notwithstanding such treaty, the pope did make reservation of benefices elective. By being concerned in this treaty, Wickliffe was made more sensible than he was before of the pride, covetousness, and ambition of the pope; and, on his return home, everywhere exposed him. Against the doctrine of indulgences he wrote; and by his zealous opposition to the Church of Rome, he met with much trouble. The pride and covetousness of the clergy he reproved, as also their neglect to preach Christ's gospel. In 1376 the king presented him with the rectorship of Lutterworth. Wickliffe, by his endeavours to reform a corrupt age, made himself many enemies, who waited for opportunities to gratify their revenge; and, as soon as he began, in his public lectures, to oppose the papal powers, nineteen articles were exhibited against him to the pope. When the pope had received those articles, he despatched various bulls to England, directing the matter to be investigated -Wickliffe to be imprisoned, and, if

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guilty, to be punished. Before the bulls reached England, King Edward was dead; but the archbishop and bishop of London proceeded to execute the pope's bulls; and not being able to get Wickliffe delivered up to them by the Univer-sity of Oxford, they issued out their mandate to the chancellor of the university and the diocese of England, commanding them to direct him to appear before them on the 19th of February. On the appointed day, Wickliffe, accompanied by John, Duke of Lancaster, and Henry Piercy, earl-marshal, attended at St. Paul's, when, in consequence of a quarrel between the bishop of London and the earl-marshal, the court broke up without adopting any measures. June, 1378, the delegates sat again for the execution of their commission; when the queen-mother sent for Louis Clifford, to forbid them to proceed to any definitive sentence against Wickliffe. At that meeting Wickliffe attended, and delivered an able and interesting paper, in which he assigned reasons for the statements he had made, and for which he had been cited; but his explanations being unsatisfactory to the delegates, they commanded him no more to repeat such propositions, either in the schools or in his sermons. By the death of Pope Gregory XI. in this year, an end was put to the commission of the delegates, and Wickliffe appeared before them no more. In 1378 Wickliffe published his book on the Truth of the Scriptures; and in 1379, in consequence of the fatigues he endured, he was seized dangerously ill, and appeared to be on the point of death; but from that attack he recovered, to the inexpressible joy of the reformed Church. In 1380, in his lectures, sermons, and writings, Wickliffe exposed the Romish court, and the vices of the clergy, both religious and secular. At the same period he was also engaged, with other pious and learned men, in translating the Holy Scriptures into English. For labours so important, he, however, received not the gratitude and respect which he deserved, but opposition and reproach. The wicked clergy perceived that such a measure would strike at the root of ignorance and superstition, and, like the Ephesians of old, they trembled for their craft. This translation was attacked, and he ably defended it; and, what was yet more important, the right of the people to read the Scriptures was questioned, but such right he reasserted,

and wisely upheld. In this and the following year he strenuously and ably opposed the popish doctrine of transubstantiation, or the real presence of Christ's body in the sacrament of the altar. Such opposition to a doctrine which had been received for nearly a thousand years by the Catholic Church, necessarily occasioned and excited the malice of his enemies, and he was censured by the chancellor of Oxford, and some doctors of the university. Wickliffe appealed from this decree of the chancellor to the king. Archbishop Sudbury, about this time, being beheaded by the rebels, William Courtney, bishop of London, was translated to the see of Canterbury, by the pope's bull, who, in 1382, in a court of certain select bishops, held in the month of May, in the monastery of the preaching friars, condemned several of the opinions of Wickliffe and his followers, as pernicious, heretical, and repugnant to the doctrines of the Church. It does not appear that Wickliffe was at all cited to appear at this court; but the condemnation which was then passed, Courtney required the chancellor of Oxford to publish. Unsatisfied with even such measures, Courtney obtained letters patent from the king, directing that Wickliffe, with other excellent men, should be expelled from the University of Oxford; and ordering that the publications of Wickliffe should be everywhere seized and destroyed. Thus persecuted, Wickliffe long withstood the tide of opposition and fury, till at length, overcome by force, he was obliged to quit his professor's place, and retire to Lutterworth. Forced to leave the university, and retire to his parsonage, he still continued his studies, and endeavoured to promote the reformation of those corruptions which, he was convinced, were everywhere prevalent. Against a popish crusade he published an able and interesting tract: and shortly afterwards his celebrated book, entitled, "The great Sentence of the Curse expounded;" and his "Treatise on the improper Distribution of Benefices." Wickliffe, soon after his removal to Lutterworth, was seized with a fit of the palsy, of which he shortly recovered, and was again able to resume his duties. By Pope Urban he was cited to appear before him, but he returned a letter of excuse, saying, that Christ had instructed him to the contrary, and taught him to obey God rather than man. Wickliffe's health now began gra

dually to decline, yet he preached the word of God, in season, and out of season; till at length, on St. Innocents' day, 1384, he was attacked with another fit of the palsy, and shortly afterwards expired.

The writings of Wickliffe were numerous and learned: his doctrines were those of the reformed Church; his followers increased, and he assisted greatly in bringing about that reformation, by which all wise and good men have been delighted, and the history of which is so interesting and important. Wickliffe was a man who seems to be placed as much above praise, as he is above envy. He had well studied all the parts of theological learning; was skilled in the canon of civil and our own municipal laws; was grave, yet cheerful, and, above all things, loved God with all his heart, and his neighbours as himself. For further account of this great reformer, vide Works of Wickliffe; Strype's History of the Reformation; History of Oxford; Leland and Fox's Acts and Monuments; Dr. James's Apology for John Wickliffe; Archbishop Wake's State of the Church; Walsingham's History of England; and Lewis's History of the Life and Sufferings of Wickliffe; and a valuable and interesting Life of this great reformer which has been lately published by the Rev. Mr. Vaughan, of Kensington.

WILHELMINIANS, a denomination in the thirteenth century, so called from Wilhelmina, a Bohemian woman, who resided in the territory of Milan. She persuaded a large number that the Holy Ghost was become incarnate in her person, for the salvation of a great part of mankind. According to her doctrines, none were saved by the blood of Jesus but true and pious Christians; while the Jews, Saracens, and unworthy Christians, were to obtain salvation through the Holy Spirit which dwelt in her, and that, in consequence thereof, all which happened in Christ during his appearance upon earth in the human nature was to be exactly renewed in her person, or rather in that of the Holy Ghost, which was united to her.

WILKINSONIANS, the followers of Jemima Wilkinson, who was born in Cumberland in America. In October 1776, she asserted that she was taken sick, and actually died, and that her soul went to heaven, where it still con

we should endeavour to take a distinct view of each case, compare them with one another, and then determine by such maxims as these:-Of two natural evils choose the least; of two moral evils choose neither; of two moral or spiritual good things choose the greatest. 3. When, upon due consideration, nothing appears in the necessity of the case of the leadings of Providence to make the way clear, we must not hurry Providence, but remain in a state of suspense; or abide where we are, waiting upon the Lord by prayer, and waiting for the Lord in the way of his providence. In all cases, it should be our perpetual concern to keep as much as possible out of the way of temptation to omit any duty, or commit any sin. We should endeavour to keep up a reverence for the word and providence of God upon our hearts, and to have a steady eye to his glory, and to behold God in covenant as managing every providential circumstance in subserviency to his gracious purposes in Christ Jesus." Pike and Hayward's Cases of Conscience, p. 156. WILL WORSHIP, the invention and practice of such expedients of appeasing or of pleasing God, as neither reason nor revelation suggests.

WISDOM denotes a high and refined notion of things, immediately presented to the mind, as it were by intuition, without the assistance of reasoning. In a moral sense, it signifies the same as prudence, or that knowledge by which we connect the best means with the best ends. Some, however, distinguish wisdom from prudence thus: wisdom leads us to speak and act what is most proper; prudence prevents our speaking or acting improperly. A wise man employs the most proper means for success; a prudent man the safest means for not being brought into danger.

Spiritual wisdom consists in the knowledge and fear of God. It is beautifully described by St. James," as pure, peaceable, gentle, easy to be entreated, full of mercy and good fruits, without partiality, and without hypocrisy." James iii. 17. See DEVOTION, RELIGION.

WISDOM OF GOD is that grand attribute of his nature by which he knows and orders all things for the promotion of his glory and the good of his creatures. This appears in all the works of his hands, Ps. civ. 24; in the dispensations of his providence, Ps. xcvii. 1, 2;

in the work of redemption, Eph. iii. 103 in the government and preservation of his church in all ages, Ps. cvii. 7. This doctrine should teach us admiration, Rev. xv. 3, 4; trust and confidence, Ps. ix. 10; prayer, Prov. iii. 5, 6; submission, Heb. xii. 9; praise, Ps. ciii. 1, 4. See Charnock's Works, vol. 1; Saurin's Sermons, vol. i. p. 157, Eng. trans.; Gill's Divinity, vol. i. p. 93 ; Abernethy's Sermons, vol. i. ser. 10; Ray's Wisdom of God in Creation; Paley's Natural Theology.

WITCHCRAFT, a supernatural power which persons were formerly supposed to obtain the possession of, by entering into a compact with the Devil. Witchcraft was universally believed in Europe till the sixteenth century, and even maintained its ground with tolerable firmness till the middle of the seventeenth. The latest witchcraft frenzy was in New England, in 1692, when the execution of witches became a calamity more dreadful than the sword or the pestilence. Some have denied the existence of witchcraft altogether. That such persons have been found among men seems, however, evident from the Scriptures, Deut. xviii. 10; Exod. xxii. 18; Gal. v. 20; Lev. xix. 13; xx. 6. The inconsistency of holding such persons in estimation, or having recourse to fortune-tellers, diviners, charmers, and such like, appears in this, 1. It is imitating the heathens, and giving countenance to the foolish superstition and absurd practices of pagans. 2. Such characters are held in abhorrence by the Lord, and their very existence forbidden. Lev. xx. 6; Exod. xx. 18.-3. He threatens to punish those who consult them, Lev. xx. 6.-4. It is wrong to have any thing to do with them, as it is setting an awful example to others. 5. It is often productive of the greatest evils, deception, discord, disappointment, and incredible mischief. Hawkins's Two Sermons on Witchcraft; Ency. Brit.; Moore's Theological Works, pp. 240, 251; Hutchinson on Witchcraft.

WONDER, any thing which causes surprise by its strangeness. "It expresses," says Mr. Cogan, 66 an embarrassment of the mind after it is somewhat recovered from the first percussion of surprise. It is the effect produced by an interesting subject which has been suddenly presented to the mind, but concerning which there are many intri

cacies, either respecting the cause or manner in which any event has taken place, motives of extraordinary conduct, &c." How it differs from admiration, see ADMIRATION.

WORKS, GOOD, are those actions which are conformable to truth, justice, or propriety; whether natural, civil, relative, moral, or religious. The circumstances requisite to a good work are, 1. That it be according to the will of God. 2. That it spring from love to God. 1 Tim. i. 5. 3. It must be done in faith, Rom. xiv. 23. 4. It must be done to the glory of God, 1 Cor. x. 31; Phil.i. 11. The causes of good works are, 1. God himself, Heb. xiii. 21. 2. By union to Christ, Eph. ii. 10. 3. Through faith, Heb. xi. 4, 6. 4. By the word and Spirit, Luke viii. 15; Isa. iii. 3; 2 Tim. iii. 16. As to the nature and properties of good works, 1. They are imperfect, Ecc. vii. 20; Rev. iii. 2. 2. Not meritorious, Tit. iii. 5; Luke xvii. 10. 3. Yet found only in the regenerate, Matt. vii. 17. The necessary uses of good works, 1. They show our gratitude, Psal. exvi. 12, 13. 2. Are an ornament to our profession, Tit. ii. 10. 3. Evidence our regeneration, Job xv. 5. 4. Profitable to others, Titus iii. 8. See HOLINESS, OBEDIENCE, SANCTIFICATION; Gill's Body of Div., vol. iii. book iv.; Ridgley's Body of Div., q. 92; Marshall on Sanc tification.

WORKS OF GOD. See BIBLE, REVELATION, SCRIPTURE.

WORLD, the whole system of created things. (See CREATION.) It is taken also for a secular life, the present state of existence, and the pleasures and interests which steal away the soul from God. The love of the world does not consist in the use and enjoyment of the comforts God gives us, but in an inordinate attachment to the things of time and sense. "1. We love the world too much," says Dr. Jortin, "when, for the sake of any profit or pleasure, we wilfully, knowingly, and deliberately transgress the commands of God. 2. When we take more pains about the present life than the next. 3. When we cannot be contented, patient, or resigned, under low and inconvenient circumstances. 4. We love the world too much when we cannot part with anything we possess to those who want, deserve, and have a right to it. 5. When we envy those who are more fortunate and more favoured by the

world than we are. 6. When we honour, and esteem, and favour persons purely according to their birth, fortunes, and success, measuring our judgment and approbation by their outward appearance and situation in life. 7. When worldly prosperity makes us proud, and vain, and arrogant. 8. When we omit no opportunity of enjoying the good things of this life; when our great and chief business is to divert ourselves till we contract an indifference for rational and manly occupations, deceiving ourselves, and fancying that we are not in a bad condition because others are worse than we."-Jortin's Serm., vol. iii. ser. 9; Bishop Hopkins on the Vanity of the World; Dr. Stennet's Sermon on Conformity to the World; H. More on Education, vol. ii. chap. 9; R. Walker's Sermons, vol. iv. ser. 20.

WORLD, AGES OF. The time preceding the birth of Christ has generally been divided into six ages. The first extends from the beginning of the world to the deluge, and comprehends one thousand six hundred and fifty-six years. The second, from the deluge to Abraham's entering the Land of Promise in 2082, comprehends four hundred and twenty-six years. The third, from Abraham's entrance into the promised land to the Exodus in 2523, four hundred and thirty years. The fourth, from the going out of Egypt to the foundation of the temple by Solomon in 2992, four hundred and seventy-nine years. The fifth, from Solomon's foundation of the temple to the Babylonish captivity in 3416, four hundred and twenty-one years. The sixth, from the Babylonish captivity to the birth of Christ, A.M. 4000, the fourth year before the vulgar era, includes five hundred and eightyfour years.

WORLD, DISSOLUTION OF. See CONFLAGRATION, DISSOLUTION. WORLD, ETERNITY OF. See ETERNITY OF THE WORLD.

WORSHIP, DEMON, the worship of a class of spirits which were thought to be superior to the soul of man; but inferior to those intelligences which animated the sun, the moon, and the planets, and to whom were committed the government of the world, particular nations, &c. Though they were generally invisible, they were not supposed to be pure disembodied spirits, but to have some kind of ethereal vehicle. They were of various orders, and according to