that the deductions and conclusions reached, are the only ones attainable, and the danger presses upon him of passing the yielding point, and so becoming arbitrary and losing the opportunity - he may fail to "strike while the iron is hot."

The weaknesses of the executive are along the line of diplomacy, and in the method of approach. It is not always what is required, but the way in which it is acquired, that invites defeat. He finds it necessary to placate all the elements-the board, the teachers, the parents, the child, the community-in an attitude of co-operation, and must carefully weigh and distinguish between the rights and privileges belonging to each of these elements. Members of boards feel that they are at least partially responsible for the success of a system, and it is easy to give offense by claiming for one's self all the responsibility, while concession in nonessentials would avoid friction.

Boards should be taken into a superintendent's confidence, and vice versa, not in any cringing or obsequious manner. He is no servant or slave in the worst sense of these terms, but a man whose bearing and action, as well as his intelligence, should make him respected, and they will be if he is acquainted with his own limitations and has a good working knowledge of human nature. The public admires courage and firmness, and will grant support when they see it deserved. No element must get the upper hand of him, for he is the guide and director and must be obeyed. Senseless coercion and arbitrary decisions are uncalled for. All may claim, and reasonably, a listening ear, no matter what the complaint, and he must be discreet enough to reserve judgment until he fully comprehends the situation. He need not preach, but should think and act upon mature deliberation. Parents and children can be met in a way that will make distasteful and disagreeable things less so. Whatever the superintendent does, he must approach it with his eyes open to the consequences, and must realize that only those things should be done that are reasonable and consistent. Rumblings and discontent will be heard; indeed, the system may be out of harmony so far as individuals are concerned; some may claim that too much, others that too little is being done; dissatisfaction may arise between parents and teachers in fact, does arise—and transfers are asked on insufficient ground. To bring harmony out of such chaotic conditions is needful, and it is his business to see that all the wheels in this vast machinery run smoothly, if he maintains his reputation as an executive.

There are two extremes to be avoided: the negative, which is always of the Micawber type, and the sledge hammer tyro, intent only upon gaining the point seemingly so essential, unwilling to consider both sides. If he come close to the community in his capacity as a private citizen, he may readily inform himself upon the thoughts that are taking

root, and should strive to be an important factor in shaping these thoughts to the most helpful solution of existing questions.

It is not necessary to enumerate the many ways in which a superintendent may feel the public pulse. The man who is intent upon discharging his full duty will find a sufficient number of avenues along which he may act, if he only cares to search for them. It is impossible to give seriatim the long catalog of particulars in which, as executive, he may be called upon to act. It is only necessary to say that whatever pertains to the execution of his plans; whatever he can do to secure co-operation ; whatever will bring the public schools nearer to the public; whatever will enable him to exercise nice discrimination and keen judgment, becomes part of his duty in the carrying out of the system.

This presentation may be ideal-perhaps overdrawn and imaginary; still, the best results educationally cannot be obtained until the greatest freedom possible within reasonable limitations, a more permanent tenure of office, power commensurate with exactions and responsibilities, and hearty support by the public in all things laudable are accorded this functionary by public consent. Then may be claimed for it what an eastern superintendent has said:

"Whatever there is of tone, support, progress, or efficiency, it all concentrates upon and radiates from the system and character of the superintendency."

DISCUSSION

E. H. MARK, Superintendent of city schools, Louisville, Ky.-The organization and government of any system, commercial, industrial, or social, must depend upon the object to be attained and the nature of the work to be done. In the commercial world, when any new enterprise is to be launched, one or more persons familiar with the details of the enterprise are called in to take charge of its organization and management, and businessmen are very careful not to invest capital in the undertaking until assured that it will receive such expert service in both its organization and management. There is certainly no enterprise in which the entire community is so much interested, and which bears so directly on the prosperity of everyone in that community, as the public-school system. I, therefore, take it for granted that as much care will be exercised in the control and management of this system as in that of a commercial enterprise.

If expert service is required and demanded in the ordinary affairs of life, how much more will the control of a school system, which deals with the destiny of the child, demand intelligent and studious supervision !

There can be no difference of opinion in regard to the place the child cccupies in our educational system. The sole purpose of the public-school system is the greatest good to the child, and all legislation, organization, and management is directed to this end.

School boards, supervisors, principals, teachers, courses of study, school buildings are only means to the end to be attained. Who shall direct the affairs toward this end has been fully answered in saying that this supervising work should be intelligently done.

With the organization of school boards the superintendent has nothing to do. These are made by legislation. They are the bodies in which all organization originates, and

they are, in most cases, the creators of the office of superintendent, and as creators hold control of the office and its duties. Therefore, "the superintendent as an organizer and an executive" will do just what the school board determines. This is the real, not the ideal condition. As to what he ought to do there can scarcely be any difference of opinion, but what he will do depends upon the character of the board and his own personality. If the board happens to be composed of good, sensible business-men, and not of politicians, the superintendent will very probably, if he is careful and thoughtful, have almost complete control of the appointment of supervisors, principals, and teachers, and he will determine the course of study to be pursued. His judgment and experience will be sought in determining the character of all school buildings.

This is as it should be. Expert work is now being recognized in every department of the commercial world as essential to the intelligent management of business enterprises. So, in the educational world, where the work should be as intelligently managed as in the commercial world, the organization and management should be placed in the hands of one who is familiar with the work to be done and the purpose to be accomplished by the work. To take a child and by means of a course of study, teachers, school building, books, and apparatus to bring him into right relations to nature, the state, and society; to fit him to be a factor in the world in which he lives; to prepare him for the community life in which he must take a part; to give him a proper conception of his rights and the rights of others, is not the work of a tyro, and cannot be intrusted to unskilled hands. Only one who fully understands all these relations and the means of adapting the child to them can be safely intrusted with the work of organizing and directing.

The mere adaptation of the child to any particular work cannot determine a course of study, for no school has the right to determine what the life-work of any child shall be, and any course of study for a public-school system which panders to a popular clamor for a preparation for special life-work is as false as the one which says that only those things shall be taught from the text-books which a child will have use for in life. School must prepare a child for any position in life, and the course of study must be selected for the purposes of mental discipline, development, and power. Having the accomplishment of all these things in mind, it seems that there can be little doubt as to the duties of a superintendent as an organizer and an executive. There are great doubts as to the fitness of school boards for determining the policy of a school system and for answering many of the questions which present themselves in the organization and management of it. Not because the members of these boards are not thoroly reliable business-men, fully competent to pass judgment upon matters connected with the financial affairs of the system, but because the majority of the questions to be decided are such as require a knowledge of principles not found in the world in which the members of the board are actively engaged and to which they have not the time to give the necessary study and investigation. It is true that many persons seek election or appointment on school boards in order to secure the adoption into the course of study of a particular hobby or fad, which they believe to be the cure-all for all educational diseases and the one thing necessary to the proper education of the children; or it may be, on the other hand, that this election or appointment is sought in order that the course of study may be stripped of all those things which are not "practical." In either case great harm is done to the system.

But the faults just enumerated are not to be found wholly in the enthusiastic reformers on the school boards, but if the charges recently made in articles in some of the magazines and in some of the papers read before this body be true, some of these sins lie at our own doors.

Then, from all the facts in the case, it seems that in the organization of a school system there should be two factors the school board and the superintendent. The duties of the two should be correlative in nearly all the work. The superintendent should, as the expert, submit plans, and the board should legislate so as to make these plans effective. In financial matters the board should have entire control. In the appointment of

principals, teachers, and supervisors, and in suggesting everything that pertains to the educational side of the system, the superintendent should have the power of nomination at least. There should be no question as to his authority in directing the affairs of the system as to transfer of teachers, preparation of a course of study, and the carrying out of the same.

In the erection of school buildings, the board and the superintendent should consult in regard to plans and specifications, but the board alone should have to do with contracting and building. The duties of the superintendent should be so clearly defined and understood, by law if possible, that it would be impossible for any member of the board to interfere with him in the performance of his duties. Nor should any superintendent attempt to perform the duties clearly incumbent on the board.

NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION

CONSTITUTION

PREAMBLE

The National Council of Education shall have for its object the consideration and discussion of educational questions of general interest and public importance, and the presentation, thru printed reports, of the substance of the discussions, and the conclusions formulated. It shall be its object to reach and disseminate correct thinking on educational questions; and, for this purpose, it shall be the aim of the Council, in conducting its discussions, to define and state with accuracy the different views and theories on the subject under consideration, and, secondly, to discover and represent fairly the grounds and reasons for each theory or view, so far as to show, as completely as possible, the genesis of opinion on the subject. It shall be the duty of the Council, in pursuance of this object, to encourage from all its members the most careful statement of differences in opinion, together with the completest statement of grounds for the same. It shall further require the careful preservation and presentation of the individual differences of opinion, whenever grounds have been furnished for the same by members of the Council. It shall invite the freest discussion and embody the new suggestions developed by such discussions. Any member making such suggestion or objection may put in writing his view, and the grounds therefor, and furnish the same to the secretary for the records of the Council. It shall prepare, thru its president, an annual report to the National Educational Association, setting forth the questions considered by the Council during the previous year, and placing before the association, in succinct form, the work accomplished. It shall embody in this report a survey of those educational topics which seem to call for any action on the part of the association. The Council shall appoint, out of its own number, committees representing the several departments of education, and thereby facilitate the exchange of opinion among its members on such special topics as demand the attention of the profession or of the public.

ARTICLE I-MEMBERSHIP

1. The National Council of Education shall consist of sixty members, selected from the membership of the National Educational Association. Any member of the association identified with educational work is eligible to membership in the Council, and after the first election such membership shall continue for six years, except as hereinafter provided.

2. In the year 1885 the Board of Directors shall elect eight members-four members for six years, two for four years, and two for two years; and the Council shall elect eight members - five members for six years, two for four years, and one for two years; and annually thereafter the Board of Directors shall elect five members and the Council five members, each member, with the exception hereinafter provided for (section 5), to serve six years, or until his successor is elected.

3. The annual election of members of the Council shall be held in connection with the annual meetings of the association. If the Board of Directors shall fail, for any