oppressed to suffer in silence. Justice, so called, is performed in the same summary manner. A person of any influence has no occasion to appear himself. He sends his servant to the Cashief, or Hakim, stating his grievance, and requesting a particular punishment to be inflicted upon the offender. The obsequious Judge readily complies, without taking the trouble of hearing the other side of the question. If the accused be charged with sedition, or any other capital crime, he is taken forthwith to the seraglio, where the Governor performs the part of Jury and Judge, and one of is attendants that of executioner. But if an example be required, the unhappy victim is hurried into the streets, or one of the most public places, where his head is speedily struck off, and his mangled body left, during the day, as a terror to the beholders. If the culprit be a man of rank or influence, execution is performed in a quieter manner; and if such an one be only suspected, a poisoned cup of coffee readily frees the Pasha from the disquietudes of future apprehension. As there are no coroners' inquests held in eastern countries, the friends of the deceased make no remarks, except that he has died of cholera, or plague, or some other fatal disorder; nor does any stranger care about asking questions upon such a subject; for the force of the proverb, that "dead men tell no tales," seems to be fully understood by eastern Monarchs. When any popular excitement takes place, many persons are observed to disappear; and the knowledge of any Government secret is a sure way to be among the fated number.

There are prophecies respecting the failing of the waters" of Egypt, (Isa. xix. 5-8,) which deserve attention. It is an undoubted fact, that the present arable land is but a part of what once formed the cultivated soil of Egypt; and also, that the present fields are not watered as they once were. Hence, disputes have arisen amongst modern travellers, whether the land has been raised by constant accumula

tions of mould and sand, or whether the Nile has ceased to rise to its former height during the annual inundations. But there is no necessity for adopting either of these opinions; as the neglect of the inhabitants, under the dominion of the barbarous Turks, will fully account for the present state of the lands. The case may be stated thus:-Egypt consists principally of a long slip of land, bounded by mountains of stone and sandy deposits, beyond which are the great deserts. This narrow valley is usually described as a perfect level, rather depressed towards the mountains, and through the middle of which the Nile flows with a rapid course, annually overflowing its banks and covering the lands with its waters, which leave behind them a thick deposit of fertilizing slime. But this statement is of a very loose description. Many of the lands are raised a few feet above the reach of the inundation, nor does the stream of the Nile ever touch their surface. Besides, the river does not flow through the middle of the land, but considerably nearer to its castern limits than to the opposite boundary. It may also be observed, that the waters of the Nile by no means possess those extraordinary properties usually attributed to them; nor do they leave such a large deposit as many people imagine. That they are very muddy, is certain; but it is probable that they carry off almost as much soil as they leave behind them. If this were not the case, the accumulating mud would soon raise the lands beyond the reach of the inundation. It is also a matter of every-day observation, that those lands which are only watered by rills, through the art of man, are nevertheless abundantly productive; and yet these are never covered with the slime in question. The waters appear to mix up and renew the surface of the soil, by which the vegetable remains of the past year are decomposed, and incorporated with the earthy mould, whilst the burning heat of an autumnal sun aids this

renovating process. For the purpose of producing a general and

regular overflow, and to raise a second crop, the ancients dug abundance of lateral canals, and formed dikes and reservoirs at a great expense. They also employed all their ingenuity in watering those lands which the Nile did not reach, and in securing a farther supply of water at pleasure. The banks of the river are to this day covered with the relics and ruins of watering-machines thus employed. But these have for the most part (at least in the upper country) been suffered to fall into decay, and the lands have been left unwatered, and consequently untilled. The embankments also of many of the low lands have been swept away, and the soil has been washed off by the rapid current. Besides, there is not now a sufficiency of men and cattle for the ordinary purposes of agriculture. The Egyptian ploughshare is formed of wood, in the rudest manner conceivable; and yet it is quite sufficient for turning up the surface of a soft and muddy soil. It ought to be employed a few days after the waters have abated, and whilst the land is still very moist; for, in two or three weeks, the burning heat of the sun converts the soft slime into a substance as hard as dried plaster of Paris. It can then be turned up only with axes; and the clods are afterwards broken with the plough. But such lands are naturally left untilled, and have all the appearance of the surrounding desert. In proportion, therefore, as the resources of the country fail, and the population decreases, the high lands will be left unwatered, and be given up to barrenness, and the low lands will become waste and uncultivated. This remark will especially apply to the second crops, and to the garden produce, which can be raised only by means of artificial watering. It is vain for the Pasha and his Counsellors to complain of the river, since the cause of the failure of the waters" lies in his own reckless ambition, which prompts him to neglect the necessary arts of peace, and to drain off all the resources of the country in the destructive operations of war. The Franks, who live

and grow rich in the latter employ, urge him on in his wasting career of maddening conquest. (Isa. xix. 11 -14.) Egypt was once almost boundless in her fruitfulness; and a restoration to this former state must be accomplished by means of the same industry and art which formerly characterized her.

Mehemet Ali, in order to recruit his exhausted treasures, has lately had recourse to an increase of the growth of cotton, which he has found to be a productive article of commerce. But to accomplish this he has not enclosed additional lands, but employs those very fields which used to grow food for the inhabitants. Hence Egypt, instead of being the granary of the world, can now barely maintain her own diminished population. Provisions become scarcer and dearer throughout the land, and the people are supported by food of the coarsest and meanest description. The rations of the army and navy consist of dried beans and oil, with occasional changes for meat twice a week; and their condition is regarded as being much superior to that of the peasantry. The pay of the troops is generally something more than 3s. sterling per month; and this is often in arrear for nine, twelve, or even eighteen months.

The clothing of the people resembles their food. The better classes, indeed, in a few of the principal towns, dress very well, and even handsomely; but the peasantry are in a revolting state of nakedness. A great number of the children, of both sexes, have no covering whatever, till they reach the age of eight or ten years, when they generally (not always) are able to procure some apology for raiment. A long blue shirt is the peasant's full dress; the men wearing a cap, or turban, and the women a veil, or cloth, thrown over their head and face. the towns, a pair of loose drawers is also worn by the lower classes, when they can afford to buy them. The dress of the army and navy, as well as of the principal officers, is the nasám, or soldier's dress, adopted first by the present Government. It

In

is a modification of the Mameluke dress; the trowsers being diminished in their dimensions, and buttoned tightly found the legs. These wear no turbans, (only the red woollen cap, called a tarbocsh,) and no beard or whiskers, but only mustachios. The merchants, Mullahs, and all of sober habits, still continue to use the long flowing eastern robes, with beard and turban. The females of the lower classes dress as the men, only having the shirt and drawers of longer dimensions, but without a waist-girdle; and varying the headdress as already mentioned. The richer women dress handsomely at home; but when they go abroad, nothing is to be seen of them but two eyes peeping out of a shapeless mass of coverings. Their very feet are concealed with huge clumsy boots; no great comfort in a hot climate.

The dwellings of the peasantry consist of small mud hovels, generally of a circular form, with a rude door, or an aperture in its place; and their furniture is limited to a little straw, and a few earthen pots. In the country towns, the better sort of houses are built of baked bricks, formed of the mud of the Nile, mixed with stubble, (Exod. v. 12,) and dried in the sun. These houses have no windows, but wooden shutters, which are opened during the day, and closed at night. They frequently contain two stories; the upper floor being reached by a flight of outside stairs, from the back part of the dwelling, though occasionally from the front. This second floor, however, often consists of a simple terrace, sometimes partly covered, where the men delight to lounge with their pipes and coffee, and where they sleep during the warm nights, stretched on a mat or rug. The women occupy the inner apartments. The houses in Alexandria and Cairo are mostly built of stone; the poorer people dwelling in mud houses or huts in the outskirts of the city. The Turkish houses are very inconvenient to a European, who understands the comforts of life; as the eastern nations have no idea of domestic enjoyments. The

men associate together, and the women neither eat nor converse with them.

Gravity is becoming to a disciple of Mahometanism, but this does not exclude sprightly conversation. On the contrary, they seem to delight in wonderful stories and legends, and in facetious entertainments. Music, with the singing of love and lewd songs, strongly attracts their attention. But the gloom of sorrow and oppression is spread over the greater part of the country. No mirth is to be seen; no sounds of joy or gladness can be heard; no children are found engaged in sport about the villages; nor does the playful voice of prattling innocence relieve the senses from that wearisome monotony of sadness and wretchedness which prevail over this unhappy land.

Religion exercises but little sway over the Egyptians. The principles of the Mahometan creed are little known, and still less attended to. "There is one God, and Mahomet is his prophet," is the sum and substance of their religious knowledge. A few of them engage in prayer at the appointed seasons; and they do so in the most conspicuous places, "to be seen of men;" for they themselves do not understand the meaning of the words which they utter, as the language of the Koran is essentially different from the vulgar tongue. The knowledge of the grammatical Arabic rests with the Mullahs and Sheiks, who are the heads of their religion. The common people are satisfied with ejaculatory calls for help from God and the prophet, when they need their assistance; and with keeping the Rhamadan, or annual fast. To this fast great importance is attached; and never are the Mahometans so bigoted and overbearing as during this month, when they eat nothing from sunrise to sunset; though they make up at night for the abstinence of the day. To perform a pilgrimage to Mecca and Jerusalein (especially the former) confers honour upon an Arab for life; and the epithet of hadjee (that is, pilgrim) is attached to his name thenceforwards. But all these acts of devotion are

regarded by the vulgar Egyptians as works of supererogation, though commanded by the Koran; for they believe that every Mahometan will be brought safe to paradise. After death and the last day, they suppose that all mortals must pass over a bridge a thousand times finer than the finest silk thread; and those that have never prayed to Mahomet will certainly fall into the fiery gulf beneath; whilst the followers of their prophet will be upheld by his mighty hand, and conducted into the abodes of happiness. They generally regard the women as having no souls, and as being created merely for the gratification and convenience of men. In paradise they will have virgins of a higher order. Hence the women are never taught to pray, nor even enter their mosques; and when taken with the men on their pilgrimage, it is simply for the pleasure, or from the jealousy, of their husbands. The Egyptians sometimes exercise a species of the wildest devotion; for, with them, a state of stupefaction is regarded as the nearest approach to Deity; and lunatics are looked upon as holy men, who run about the streets in a state of complete nudity, greatly reverenced by the vulgar. When seized with one of their fits of devotion, the people collect in a circle; sing and, respond to God and the prophet; inflect their bodies; leap and writhe in the most frightful motions; shout and cry; and then groan in such a horrible manner as would lead the spectator to fear lest every vein of their bodies would burst; till, quite exhausted and stupified, they sink into rest, from which they rise to indulge in songs or acts of the grossest description.

What sort of morality can be expected from a religion which affords unbounded licentiousness to its votaries? or what depravity may not be surmised as existing in a state of society, where the people herd together in little hovels, amidst the most deplorable filth and nudity, wholly under the dominion of unbridled passions, and possessed of utter recklessness as to futurity? The man of morality and feeling who

enters some of their larger villages, even during the mid-day sun, will frequently hurry away, impressed with the deepest feelings of horror, fear, and detestation. Many of the Turks in the Pasha's employ are infidels, regardless of the slightest forms of decency or morality. An Englishman, addicted to the use of ardent spirits, sips the intoxicating liquor, till he loses command of himself, and reels home, publishing his shame; but the infidel Turk sits on his carpet, smoking his pipe, and swallowing every species of strong drink that he can lay hold of, till he falls into a state of deadly torpidity; and where he has been drinking, there he lies till the fumes of intoxication are dissipated by sleep. The Pasha's fleet is like a floating Sodom.

The inhabitants of Egypt are brought up in a constant state of duplicity, and love of concealment. They fear every person, and always hide the real state of things. Hence they dread nothing more than telling the truth, even in the most trivial circumstances, nor will they ever state a fact as it really occurred. They never believe others, and never expect to be believed. To swear by God and the prophet, has no importance attached to it; though, in trifling matters, an oath by the beard carries some weight with it.

In the character of all eastern nations, one prominent feature is, a great hatred of all changes and innovations. Mehemet Ali had to subdue many insurrections, and to strike off many heads, before he could introduce the European military discipline, which is still in a very imperfect state. The soldiers' dress is also regarded as a great innovation; and the want of beards and turbans amongst the troops tends in no small degree to increase the antipathy with which the peasants regard them. In Syria, they are viewed with utter detestation; though it seems to be a part of the Pasha's policy to keep up this mutual fear and hatred; and, to strengthen it, he has bestowed many privileges upon his Christian subjects. The soldiers and the peasants do not as

sociate together, even during their leisure hours; but the former conduct themselves with an overbearing insolence, and the latter preserve a sullen suspicion and hatred. The Pasha is regarded by the bulk of the people with the most slavish dread, and supreme abhorrence. Some consider him as being a Christian, others as an infidel; and, perhaps, the latter are not far from the truth. To introduce so many changes, and never to perform any public acts of devotion, is a character which the peasants view with superstitious dread and abomination. Hence their intercourse with Europeans produces little change in their views and habits; for they soon studiously forget what they have been obliged to learn in the service of a Frank. The inhabitants of the upper country live in a state of complete barbarism, -wild, savage, superstitious. Thus arises a seemingly insuperable barrier to the spread of Christian knowledge amongst the Egyptians in their present condition. The Government, which watches every thing with the most jealous eye, will allow of no interference with the religion of the Mahometans. The Pasha dreads any commotion amongst the people; and should the Chiefs of their religion rouse the already indignant hearts of the populace, with the cry of, "For God and the prophet," the consequences might be most serious to the present rulers. This was the excuse given by Mehemet Ali for banishing Mr. Wolff from his dominions, when he prophesied the downfal of the Mahometan powers; and when the indignant Sheiks demanded vengeance for the supposed outrage, "I care nothing for that fool," the Pasha is reported to have said, "what becomes of him; but if the people rise up in commotion, I may lose my head, and I care for that." It is pretty certain that Mehemet would not, of himself, put into execution the bloody mandate of the Mussulman creed, "that the Mahometan who changes his religion must die the death;" but the fanaticism of the people would soon accomplish what their Governor neglected to perform. Hence they

look with the most suspicious jealousy upon the man who has the boldness to talk with them on Christianity, as one who has a design upon their life, or who wishes them some mortal harm; and they turn away from him with fear, to call afresh upon God and their prophet. It is true, that a few of the Egyptians who have communicated much with Europeans, and find their conduct to be no worse than their own, are more liberal in their views. The doctrine of such is, that "all religions are from God, and therefore all are good; but theirs, being the last, must necessarily be the best."

The doctrine of fatalism rules with unbounded sway. When the plague is raging around, the Mussulman says, "There is no fear;" and, looking to heaven, exclaims, “This is from God; " perhaps, adding, in explanation, "If it were from man, something might be done to stop it; but it is from God: therefore there is no need to think of it. Glory be to God and the prophet!"

The parts of the Koran which they repeat are not prayers, in our sense of the term, as meaning supplication; but consist of moral and religious precepts and maxims, or expressions of praise and adoration. And it is remarkable that they never pray for an increase of future good, or for the averting of evil, or for deliverance from danger and death. Why should they, when they believe that their lot is already absolutely destined by heaven?

The Egyptians ridicule, in unineasured terms, the idea of a Trinity, the divinity of Christ, and the existence of the Holy Ghost, as a person of the Trinity. They appear to have no notion of the justice or holiness of God; but look upon him as a capricious lord, only studying his own good-will and pleasure. In this respect they judge according to their own views of sin, looking upon no crime with abhorrence, but regarding it as a necessity or a misfortune. One would scarcely suppose that they were possessed of a conscience, or were capable of discerning right from wrong.

Very few of the Mahometans can