plays; and, altho they occasionally undergo changes, being transmitted from one generation of childhood to another by oral repetition, the marvel is that they should linger at all with such apparent purity. This persistence is possible only thru a conservatism of children which is as pronounced as it is unexpected. In most of the matters. which pertain to the life of children they are reformers of the most aggressive type, and quite oblivious of the traditions and limitations of their environment. But in all that pertains to their play interests they are conservative to the core. The formulas of plays are clung to with gospel tenacity; and the children themselves are the most displeased when the canons of games are irreligiously violated. Because of this insistence, this vein of juvenile conservatism, children's play interests and activities -their toys and games-are the oldest things in the world, linking the child thru his play-life to the mental life of savages and barbarians.

HOW MAY FATigue in the schoolroom be reduced TO THE MINIMUM ?

BY DR. H. E. KRATZ, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, SIOUX CITY, IA.

Mosso, an eminent authority on fatigue, states that he has made the difficult ascent of Mt. Blanc several times, and observed the sublime scenery that greets the eye of the traveler, but that he can remember nothing of the magnificent view from the mountain's summit, because his fatigue so greatly lessened his mental ability. If a well-trained, mature mind like Mosso's fails to carry away lasting impressions from scenes so grand, so awe-inspiring, so profoundly impressive, so powerfully appealing to the emotions, as those gained from Mt. Blanc, because fatigue has laid its numbing hand upon his powers of observation and perception, what can the untrained, immature mind of the child be expected to carry away from his usually dull routine of daily work in the schoolroom, when fatigue has laid its numbing hand upon his weak powers of observation and perception? Has not this same experience of Mosso's been paralleled in the instruction of even bright pupils, and teacher and pupils saddened and discouraged because, after carefully and laboriously climbing to the mountain top of some difficult topic, from which a glorious view could be caught, fatigue so dulled the powers of perception that practically nothing of permanent value was carried away? Such experiences are only too common, and, besides being depressing, leave the pupil in a discour aged frame of mind, with confidence in self shaken and with less desire to make the ascent again.

May not this be, in part at least, the explanation why so many pupils lose interest in their school work, develop a positive distaste for it, fall behind in their work, and are classed with dullards, so-called? Surely, the normal mind of the child possesses as vigorous an appetite for mental pabulum as his stomach does for physical pabulum. Why do so many turn away from the cuisine of the school? The fault lies, not in the nature of the child's mind, but in the way and in the time in which it is served.

The cry of overwork in our schools is frequently heard. It is a matter of supreme moment whether or not our children are in danger of overpressure. Fatigue is nature's kind warning against overpressure and overexertion. We need constantly to be on the alert to discover whether or not the requirements of the schoolroom are too heavy, whether the hours of work are too many, whether the study periods are too long, whether the rest periods are too infrequent, whether any change can be made by which the maximum mental efficiency can be secured with a minimum expenditure of each child's energy. It should be constantly borne in mind that what a child accomplishes or masters depends not so much on how hard or how long he works as it does upon the fact that he is working at the maximum of his power. Ten minutes of concentrated, vigorous effort, when the mind is fresh, is worth ten times ten minutes of dawdling, whether the dawdling be caused by fatigue or laziness. Time is no measure of progress in the schoolroom.

Ribot says: "Fatigue in every shape is fatal to memory." Every teacher, therefore, should be familiar with the indications of fatigue, with the conditions which most rapidly induce it, and with the means that may be employed to avoid, to reduce, or to overcome it, so that the maximum of effort may be attained by the minimum expenditure of energy. It is said that he who causes two blades of grass to spring up where only one was growing is a public benefactor. But what shall we term him who points out how to increase mental efficiency? What honor shall we bestow upon him who can so direct us that we can bring down with us the glorious views from the mountain top, rather than be baffled and lose our grip upon them thru the benumbing effect of fatigue ?

It was my privilege, more than two years ago, to state before the Department of Superintendence of this association that fatigue furnished "important indications, which, if carefully studied, will give the right ordering of the daily work of the schoolroom and secure the largest degree of mental efficiency with the least loss of the child's energy. This problem has not yet been fully worked out, and we should earnestly address ourselves to its solution." It may be said, after the lapse of more than two years, that this problem has not yet been fully worked out, altho progress has been made.

Dr. Hodge has demonstrated that brain work exhausts the nerve cells,

causing them to shrink, and that rest is needed for their recovery. Mosso concludes that such exhaustion is due, in great part, to the formation of toxic products thru nervous and muscular action. These poisonous products distributed by the blood chiefly induce fatigue. Severe and longcontinued activity leads to an accumulation of poisonous products in the blood. These cause acidity of the blood, which in turn lends a temporary acidity to the disposition. This irritability is one of the familiar signs of fatigue. Other indications are wandering, lusterless eyes, jaded expres sion, asymmetry of posture, twitching of muscles of the face and of fingers, week balance of hand, abnormal color of skin, frequency of errors, and lack of the usual mental grasp.

But how may fatigue in the schoolroom be reduced to the minimum? is the important question. We concede in our question that it cannot be entirely overcome; that we must reckon with it, and endeavor to reduce it to the minimum where it will clog instruction as little as possible.

This paper cannot take up the subjects of good health, nutritious foods, proper exercise, etc., altho each of these contributes in no small degree to that fresh, vigorous condition of mind and body which is so essential for the attainment of the maximum of mental efficiency. Nor can it more than point out that much of inattention, that source of incalculable loss in the schoolroom, is often due to overeating, impoverishment, vitiated and overheated atmosphere, misfits in desks, and many other causes whose remedies are to some extent within the grasp of the teacher.

Our psychologists tell us that with the normal pupil mental fatigue from school work is quickly induced and also quickly passes away. Mental efficiency, or the increments of skill gained thru mental training, is much more permanent in its character, and is not soon lost. If this be true, in order to attain the highest possible maximum of mental efficiency, with the greatest economy of effort, provide working periods with more. frequent rest periods, and thus secure, thru this power of the mind to recuperate rapidly, an almost continuous high state of mental vigor. That which has prevented us in the past from injecting more freely these rest periods into the work periods has been the fear that during such interruptions pupils would lose all the advantage gained. But that fear, according to this statement of our friends, the psychologists, is not well founded. The mind, instead of being, as we supposed, like the oldfashioned sensitized plate of the photographer, which required a long exposure, is, after all, more like the highly sensitized plate of the snapshot camera. Not long exposure, but right conditions, such as proper foundations, close attention, profound interest these determine the vividness of the mental picture, its permanency, and the degree of strength gained. We need, especially in the lower grades, to bring in these more frequent rest or exercise periods, believing that the increments of power gained from mental activity will not be dissipated thru such slight

interruptions, and that efficiency of public-school work will be greatly increased as well as relieved of much of its present drudgery. Change is rest. Presumably the psychological explanation lies in the fact that the brain has various sense centers, to which are referred appropriate stimuli. Weariness, therefore, in the sense of sight can be partially relieved by exercises which appeal largely to the ear or the use of the hand. The daily program should be so arranged as to bring out the strongest possible contrasts and, for the lower grades, frequent changes in subjects. Music, drawing, and physical culture should be sandwiched in between the more difficult studies.

Not simply should strong contrasts be sought in arranging the daily program, but there should be careful study made so as to arrange subjects with reference to the hours when each can be pursued to best advantage. Professor Seeley, from memory tests made by Dr. Krohn, concludes that, whatever subject is taken first in the morning, the average retentive power of the children reaches 89 per cent. This, therefore, is the best working period of the day, and presumably the period for arithmetic. The secondbest working period he places from 3 to 4 in the afternoon, and, with history as the subject, finds the retentive power of the children is only 3 per cent. less than for the morning hour. Common observation, however, will scarcely sustain this conclusion. The next-best period is assigned to the time from 1 to 2:30, and the poorest period from 11 to Under the best possible arrangement of recitation periods the greatest loss at any one period is 21 per cent., while under the arrangement of the average school program the loss is 38 per cent., or 17 per cent. greater. The average loss under a poorly arranged program is 11 per cent. greater than under the best arrangement. Whether we accept these results as strictly accurate or not, it certainly remains a highly important fact that much can be gained toward relieving the fatigue of the schoolroom by a wise arrangement of the daily program with reference to contrasts in subjects and their best adaptation to the hours of work.

12.

Pupils waste an enormous amount of energy in their misguided efforts to master a subject. The need of training pupils how to study, how to center every energy upon the task in hand, is not yet sufficiently appreciated by teachers. Tests in the recitation are all directed to ascertaining how much the pupil knows of the subject, and the more vital process of how he gained his knowledge is ignored. Studying is a great art, and its mastery, or the failure to master it, is fraught with momentous consequences to the pupil. There are those right beginnings which lead on to conscious power and mastery, and there are those misguided efforts which lead to weariness and defeat. The teacher of today must be keen enough to discover what bad habits of study are mocking this or that earnest pupil, and making his school life drudgery instead of an inspiration; and, when discovered, must be able to train into a better use of his mental powers.

The study of interest-how to utilize it more fully in school work— has in the last decade banished much of the weariness and drudgery from the schoolroom, and its advantages and helpfulness in this direction. are yet far from being exhausted. The reason why interest is such an important factor in relieving from fatigue lies in the well-known fact that the greater the interest in a subject, the less the effort of will to hold the attention to that subject. The conscious exercise of will is always fatiguing, and especially so when the subject under consideration is distasteful. The potency of interest in relieving from drudgery lies in the fact that, even concerning subjects which at first were distasteful, "we may," to quote the Herbartians, "build up such a powerful apperception mass that any fact connected with that mass will at once attract our attention, quite irrespective of our will." Under the wise teacher's management, therefore, every subject in the school curriculum can eventually be included within the charmed circle of the pupil's interests.

Why is fatigue induced so much sooner when the work is distasteful? We have already intimated that it is due to the greater exercise of will which is required to hold the wavering attention. But it seems that another characteristic should be pointed out. Where distaste exists an attitude of antagonism springs up. This feeling of dislike seeks to express itself in some outward form. To repress it requires great effort. Altho outwardly the pupil may seem composed, there is a deep inward struggle. The teacher, unless some bodily expression be given to it, remains ignorant of it, and is not conscious of the immense expenditure of mental, even physical, energy the child is undergoing. Let me illustrate: I press my hand against one of the walls of this room. I foolishly fear that it may fall upon me and crush me. I press with all my might against it. Every muscle in my body is tense. The cold, unfeeling wall shows no sign of yielding, but resists with equal pressure my tense muscles; and but slight evidence goes forth that I am in such an intense attitude of resistance. What a serious mistake to conclude that, because there is but little motion, there is therefore no intense struggle going on, and therefore no cause for weariness. And so in the schoolroom: when the pupil has a serious dislike for a subject of study, or for the uninteresting manner of presenting it, or a feeling of antagonism has, unfortunately, sprung up between him and his teacher, what a serious mistake to conclude that, because there is but little outward manifestation, there is therefore no severe tension or cause for weariness! These dislikes, these antagonisms, these undercurrents of feeling sap energies which should be utilized in fruitful school work.

Education, from this point of view, is to direct nervous energy into right channels and to keep it out of wrong ones. In every idea received there is a tendency toward motion aroused, which expends itself either in