have been numberless efforts made to impress distinct ideas of each plant, without giving the whole description; but every botanical system has hitherto failed in this particular, and nothing but a perfect description of each can give an adequate idea. For this reason, leaving such systems to the speculative, I have in the following work pursued the common method, and given a perfect account of every vegetable; its roots, leaves, stalks, height, flower, and seeds. Such complete descriptions are absolutely necessary to distinguish one object from another throughout every department of Natural History, but particularly in this, where the objects are so numerous. The deviations of nature are not to be reduced into systems there are in plants no parts which are manifested in all the specios; the flowers and the seeds which seem the most essential, and of consequence the most invariable, are not to be found similar in many of the same sorts, although our most boasted systems are wholly founded upon the similitude in the parts of fructification.

I hope therefore students will excuse me for not having adopted either the systems of Tournefort or Linnæus, in contradiction to nature and experience; my design being not to amuse the speculative, but to direct the industrious. Their attempts to reduce the names of plants into a system, have rendered the study more difficult and more subject to error, than it would nave been if the student had only used his sight for the distinguishing of plants, and his memory for registering them. The number also of vegetables which they have undertaken to register, is equally prejudicial to this useful study; not less than twenty thousand species have been classed, a multitude, the mere remembering of which would employ all that time which might be usefully spent in the investigation of their particular uses. Instead therefore of expatiating upon so large, yet barren, a field, I have only taken care to describe all such exotics as are useful to us, either in medicine or manufactures, and all indigenous plants that have been at any time in use, which though now obsolete may deserve one day an attention of which at present they are thought undeserving.'

Leaving therefore systematical arrangement, let us treat this subject in the manner of the ancients, as Pliny and Aristotle (if the work upon this subject ascribed to him be genuine) have handled it. Such as have been found already useful to mankind, we shall take particular care minutely to describe, and leave to posterity and chance to find out the uses of those now unnoticed.

In every vegetable production we may consider either the seed, the root, the leaf, the bark, the stalk, the pith, and the flower; all of which are necessary in carrying on the business of vegetation, and transmitting the species from season to season without interruption. But though the principles of vegetation reside in every part of the plant, yet we generally find greater proportions of oil in the more elaborate and exalted parts of vegetables, namely, the seed. This containing the rudiments of the future vegetable, it was necessary that it should be well stored with principles that would preserve the seed from putrefaction, and tend to promote vegetation. When the seed is sown, in a few days it imbibes so much moisture as to swell, so that it produces the radicle or incipient root, with some force, which, when shot into the ground, imbibes nourishment from thence, and what it receives becomes, in a short time, the chief supply of future growth. When the root is thus far grown, it supplies the plume with nourishment, till this, by expanding and growing thinner, turns to green leaves, which are of such importance to the incipient plant, that it perishes, and will not

1 Such as would desire to be more fully convinced of the fertility of the botanical system, may consult a memoir written by M. Daubenton, the present keeper of the royal cabinet at Paris.—Au Mot. Botanique Encyclop. fol. vol. ii. p. 340.--GOLDSMITH.

thrive if they are pulled off. But when the plume is so far come to maturity, as to have branches and expanded leaves to draw up nourishment, these seminal leaves being no longer useful, perish; their perspiration being impeded by the newly produced leaves that overshadow them, and their sap being drawn away by the larger channels of the upper foliage.

As the plant advances in stature, the first, second, third, and fourth order of lateral branches shoot out, each lower order being larger than those immediately above them, not only on account of their having a longer time to grow, but because being inserted in large parts of the trunk, and nearer the root which is the grand supply, they are provided with greater plenty of sap, from whence we generally see trees tapering beautifully to the top. Upon the discovery of the circulation of the blood in animals, botanists seemed willing to think, from the analogy there was between all the works of nature, that the same circulation must also have prevailed in vegetables; and some have actually undertaken to prove, that the sap first rises to the tops of trees by the pith, and then again descends to the root by the bark, with the swiftest motion. This was long a received opinion, till the learned Dr. Hales undertook by experiment to undeceive the public, and has led many to be of his opinion: When, says he, the sap has first passed through that thick and fine strainer, the bark of the root (which may be regarded as the stomach of vegetables in general, where the greatest part of the nourishment is prepared and taken in) there it is found in great quantities in the most lax part between the bark and the wood; early in the spring it begins to rise. But as this sap is imbibed from the earth in great quantities, its celerity, continues he, would be incredible if that quantity first ascended to the top of the tree, and then descended again before it were carried off by perspiration. The defect of circulation, however, in vegetables, he accounts for by the superior quantity of liquor carried off by perspiration than what is perspired by animals, having shown that a sun-flower, bulk for bulk, imbibes and perspires seventeen times more fresh liquor than a man, every twenty-four hours. So that though the sap ascends with great velocity in vegetables, from this great quantity of subtile fluid carried off by the leaves, yet there seems no reason for its descent in any such proportion, nor would it have sufficient time to supply the plant with nutrition, if it went round so briskly. Such was the opinion of this great naturalist. Mr. Duhamel, however, who has written since his time, has undertaken to prove the descent of the sap in vegetables, as well as its ascent, by making a circular incision on the barks of trees, and finding the swelling of the bark above the incision was greater than that below it, which equally answered if the plant and its pot were inverted, the roots being in air, the branches downward. However, this may be certain, that there is a constant flow of juices through every plant, the roots furnishing it in great quantities, while the leaves spreading an extended surface to the sun, have their moisture attracted in very large quantities, and when the influence of his beams no longer continue, they at night act as sponges, and imbibe the humidity of the air. Thus we see that the leaves are absolutely necessary in the work of vegetation; they, like young animals, are furnished with instruments to suck it from thence; and beside this, they separate and carry off the redundant watery fluid, which, by being long detained, would turn rancid, and become noxious to the plant.

But as the leaves are found to exhale moisture, so they are known to imbibe nourishment from the air. The acid and sulphureous spirit with which the air is fraught, is thence extracted by the leaves of plants, so that it is probable the most exalted and aromatic principles of vegetables are derived from this source, rather than from the grosser watery fluid of the sap. Leaves are found to perform in some measure the same office, for the support of vegetative life, that the lungs of animals do for the support of animal life; but as plants have not a power of contracting or dilating the

chest, their inspirations will depend wholly on the alternate changes of the air. Plants of the more rich and racy juices imbibe greater quantities of nutriment from the air, than the more vapid and succulent plants, which are found to abound more in sap. The vine, for instance, is known by experiment to draw but little watery nutriment from the earth by its roots, and therefore it imbibes greater quantities of dew, impregnated with air by night, from whence it derives its richness of flavour; and this may be the reason why plants in hot countries abound more with fine aromatic principles than northern vegetables; the former chiefly extracting their juices from the air by the leaf, the latter theirs from the earth by the root.

Nothing can exceed the regularity with which leaves are placed on every plant, and Bonetius has been at the pains of describing the different dispositions they assume; the alternate, the crossing, the vertical, the quincunx, and the spiral, are the divisions he makes of their arrangements. But the care which, when budding, nature seems to take of the young shoots, still deserves greater admiration, for the most tender parts are ever defended by those which have acquired a greater degree of strength. Besides this, the leaf, as may be easily seen, has two different surfaces, the upper which seems more smooth and polished, the lower in which the ribs are more prominent, and the colour of a paler green; the cause of this difference has not a little puzzled the botanists of every age; perhaps the upper polished surface, from its position being more liable to the external injuries of the air and rains, is thus formed rather to defend the lower part, in which probably the attractive powers may reside.

In this manner the leaves of trees contribute to improve the flavour of the fruits, and regulate the vegetation. When trees stand thick together in woods or groves, the lower branches, being shaded by those of neighbouring trees, can perspire little, and imbibe less, wherefore they perish: but the top branches being exposed to a free air, they perspire plentifully, and by this means drawing the sap to the top, they advance in height rather than extent: so that Dr. Hales compares a tree to a complicated engine, which hath as many different powers of attraction as it hath arms or branches, each drawing from their common fountain of life, the root. The younger the plant, the greater its power of attraction, while as it grows older the vessels of eirculation become more rigid, and the parts to be produced more inflexible, till at last the parts, no longer capable from the rigidity of age, either of protrusion or dilatation, the plant acquires its greatest degree of hardness, but continues to vegetate no longer. So that in all we see the admirable contrivance of the Author of nature, in adapting different ways of conveying nourishment to the different circumstances of her productions. In the embryo state the quantity which the bud demands relative to its size is very great; when it is increased, though a much greater quantity of nourishment is then necessary, yet less suffices each particular part, so that nature produces no organised being, which it is not able to supply.

But the assiduity of nature in the protection of the growing plant is not greater than her care to preserve the seeds which are to propagate the future vegetable uninjured. The curious expansion of blossoms and flowers seems to be appointed by nature, not only to protect, but also to convey nourishment to the embryo seed. M. Vaillant even seems to regard flowers as the criterion which constitute the difference of sex in plants; he pretends that the leaves of flowers are nothing more than coverings, which serve to wrap up the organs of generation, with which all plants are furnished, they having not less than animals their different sexes.

Tournefort, whose name we have adopted, distinguishes five parts in flowers, namely, the petal, the stamen, the apex, the pistil, and calix, or cup; these parts, however, are not found united in all flowers, but some have one part, some another. To give the ignorant an idea of these, let us take the

carnation, a common flower, for an example, as containing them all. The leaves or petals of flowers are so called to distinguish them from the leaf of the plant. The petals are therefore the beautiful striped leaves that compose the flower of the carnation; the stamen is that small slender stalk, several of which are found growing in the midst of the petals; the apex is the little head with which every stamen is terminated; the pistil is that single eminence, in the midst of all, terminated by two or three crooked filaments; while the calix or cup is that exterior green part of the flower which encloses and supports the rest. Such flowers as have stamina with apexes at the end, in general have two little receptacles, containing a dust or farina, but produce no fruit, they are called male plants; such, on the contrary, as have only a pistil, which is succeeded by the fruit, are called female; those, on the other hand, which have both stamina and pistils, are called hermaphrodite plants, as uniting both sexes in one. In order to perform the business of fecundity, it has been supposed that the dust or farina, contained in the apex of the male flower, was scattered by the wind, or otherwise, upon the pistil of the female flowers, which was adapted with a proper apparatus for receiving it, and became by this means prolific. It has been also found by experience, that when the male and female flowers were separated by a high wall or otherwise, the latter continued barren and produced no seed; however, this whole theory has of late been strongly opposed by many eminent botanists, particularly the late Dr. Alston of Edinburgh, a man of extensive knowledge in such subjects, and of indefatigable industry.

The fruits in general serve to supply the seed with moisture, and may be compared to a chemical elaboratory, in which the oleaginous juices are prepared; those kernels in particular which are enclosed within a thick shell, and receive nourishment from the fruit expanded round it, have the vessels which supply this nut, running perpendicularly inward, but making convolutions round the edges of the shell, in order to prepare the oils in still greater perfection.

In all fruits Linnæus distinguishes the pericardium, or inner covering, in which the seed is lodged, the semen, or seed, and the receptaculum, or husk, as we call it, which is the part which supports the seed or the flower, or both together.

The pericardium he divides into eight kinds, to wit, 1. The capsula, or pod, which is composed of several elastic cells, which generally open of themselves when ripe, and which inclose the seed in one or more cells. 2. The conceptaculum, which only differs from the capsula, in that it is void of elasticity. 3. The siliqua. 4. The legumen. 5. The drupa. 6. The pomum. 7. The bacca. 8. The strobilus or cone. Such are the divisions this naturalist has thought proper to make in fruits; but if we examine nature, we shall find that these are perfectly arbitrary, and that to understand these minute distinctions, is more difficult than to become acquainted with her real productions.

But though fruits in general are the most inconsiderable agents in promoting the work of vegetation, being, as has been already observed, only destined for supplying the seed with proper moisture and nourishment; yet, with respect to man, they make the most useful and pleasing part of vegetable productions. Their general properties, as constituting a part of our food, may be considered as arising from their different degrees of maturity. In general, while unripe, they may be considered as astringent, and in some measure partaking of the qualities of the bark of their respective trees; when come to a sufficient degree of maturity, they cool and attenuate, but from too great a power, in these respects, they often bring on disorders that are fatal, particularly in warmer climates, where their juices are possessed of those qualities still more than with us. In our climates,

however, this seldom happens, and they probably do not make a sufficient part of our diet.

As many expedients have been tried among us for preserving fruit fresn all the year, I shall beg leave to give one communicated to the public by the Chevalier Southwell, and which has been used in France with success. Take of saltpetre one pound, of bole armenic two pounds, of common sand well freed from its earthy parts, four pounds, and mix all together; after this, let the fruit be gathered with the hand before it be thorough ripe, each fruit being handled only by the stalk; lay them regularly, and in order, in a large wide-mouthed glass vessel; then cover the top of the glass with an oiled paper, and carrying it into a dry place, set it in a box filled all round to about four inches thickness with the aforesaid preparations, so that no part of the glass vessel shall appear, being buried in a manner in the prepared nitre; and, at the end of the year such fruits may be taken out as beautiful as when they were first put in.

INTRODUCTION.1

EXPERIENCE every day convinces us, that no part of learning affords so much wisdom upon such easy terms as history. Our advances in most other studies are slow and disgusting, acquired with effort, and retained with difficulty; but in a well-written history, every step we proceed only serves to increase our ardour: we profit by the experience of others without sharing their toils or misfortunes; and in this part of knowledge in a more particular manner study is but relaxation.

Of all histories, however, that which, not confined to any particular reign or country, but which extends to the transactions of all mankind, is the most useful and entertaining. As in geography we can have no just idea of the situation of one country without knowing that of others; so in history, it is in some measure necessary to be acquainted with the whole thoroughly to comprehend a part. There is a constant, though sometimes concealed, concatenation in events, by which they produce each other, and without a knowledge of which they cannot be comprehended separately. The rise of one kingdom is often found owing to political defects in some other. The arts and learning of succeeding states take a tincture from those countries from whence they were originally derived. Some nations have been applauded for plans of government, which an acquaintance with general history would have shown were not their own; while others have been reproached for barbarities which were not natural to them, but the result of erroneous imitation.

Thus no one part of the general picture can be thoroughly conceived alone; but by taking in the whole of history at one view, we can trace every cause to its remotest source, observe how far every nation was indebted to its own efforts for its rise or decline, how far to accident or the particular circumstances of the countries around it. We may here trace the gradations of its improvement or decay, mark in what degree conquerors introduced refinement among those they subdued, or how far they conformed to the soil and put on barbarity. By such reflections as these, and by applying

1 To "A General History of the World, from the Creation to the Present Time. By William Guthrie, Esq., John Gray, Esq., and others eminent in this branch of literature." 12 vols. 8vo. 1764.

VOL. III.

EE