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subjects, not directly, but in their reflections and echoes in books."

Next to Dr. Franklin, the ablest writer of the colonial period in America was Jonathan Edwards, a theologian and metaphysician of more than ordinary intellectual. ability and attainments, a preacher of wonderful influence and strange power. His greatest work was A careful and strict Inquiry into the Modern Notion that Freedom of Will is supposed to be essential to Moral Agency (1754). His Sermons were published in 1791, and his complete Works in 1817. The following passages from a sermon preached at Enfield, and entitled Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God, will suffice as an example of his style of exhortation:

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Were it not for the sovereign pleasure of God, the earth would not bear you one moment; for you are a burden to it; the creation groans with you; the creature is made subject to the bondage of your corruption not willingly; the sun does not willingly shine upon you to give you light, to serve sin and Satan; the earth does not willingly yield her increase to satisfy your lusts; nor is it willingly a stage for your wickedness to be acted upon; the air does not willingly serve you for breath to maintain the flame of life in your vitals, while you spend your life in the service of God's enemies. The bow of God's wrath is bent, and the arrow made ready on the string, and justice bends the arrow at your heart, and strains the bow, and it is nothing but the mere pleasure of God, and that of an angry God, without any promise or obligation at all, that keeps the arrow one moment from being drunk with your blood. .. If you cry to God to pity you, he will be so far from pitying you in your doleful case, or showing you the least regard or favor, that instead of that, he will only tread you under foot. And though he will know that you cannot bear the weight of omnipotence treading upon you, yet he will not regard that; but he will crush you under his feet without mercy; he will crush out your blood, and make it fly, and it shall be sprinkled out on his garments, so as to stain all his raiment. He will not only hate you, but he will have you in the utmost contempt; no place shall be thought fit for you, but under his fect to be trodden down as the mire of the streets.

What an accumulation of horrors is this, and what a picture of an all-wise and loving Father in heaven! The stern doctrine of the Calvinists never found a more earnest or a more able advocate. The student will turn with pleasure from these gloomy but fervid utterances of Edwards to the sermons and discourses of a later and more liberal school of divines. He will find true enjoyment in perusing the works of William Ellery Channing, of whom Coleridge wrote: "He has the love of wisdom and the wisdom of love." In the writings of Theodore Parker he will discover many passages of high literary merit. And in the sermons of Henry Ward Beecher and T. DeWitt Talmage he may peruse some of the finest examples of modern pulpit oratory.

"When Christianity arose eighteen centuries ago, it was in the East, in the land of the Essenes and Therapeutists, amid universal dejection and despair, when the only deliverance seemed a renunciation of the world, an abandonment of civil life, destruction of the natural instincts, and a daily waiting for the kingdom of God. When it rose again, three centuries ago, it was in the West, amongst laborious and half-free peoples, amidst universal restoration and invention, when man, improving his condition, regained confidence in his worldly destiny, and widely expanded his faculties. No wonder if the new Protestantism differs from the ancient Christianity, if it enjoins action instead of preaching asceticism, if it authorizes comforts in place of prescribing mortification, if it honors marriage, work, patriotism, inquiry, science, all natural affections and faculties, in place of praising celibacy, withdrawal from the world, scorn of the age, ecstasy, captivity of mind, and mutilation of the heart. A vast revolution has taken place during the last three centuries in human intelligence,-like those regular and vast uprisings which, displacing a continent, displace all the prospects. We know that positive discoveries go on increasing day by day, that they will increase daily more and more, that from

object to object they reach the most lofty, that they begin by renewing the science of man, that their useful application and their philosophical consequences are ceaselessly unfolded; in short, that their universal encroachment will at last comprise the whole human mind. From this body of invading truths springs in addition an original conception of the good and the useful, and, moreover, a new idea of church and state, art and industry, philosophy and religion."*

REFERENCES.

Marsh's Origin and History of the English Language.
Whipple's Literature of the Age of Elizabeth.
Izaak Walton's Life of Richard Hooker.
Hazlitt's Lectures on the Age of Elizabeth.

Principal Tulloch's Rational Theology in England.
Wordsworth's Ecclesiastical Biography.

Moses Coit Tyler's History of American Literature.
Hunt's History of Religious Thought.

T. J. Mathias's Pursuits of Literature.

Lecky's History of England in the Eighteenth Century.
Green's History of the English People.

Westcott's History of the Bible.

Anderson's Annals of the English Bible.

Smith's Bible Dictionary.

William Orme's Bibliotheca Biblica.

*Taine, IV., 107.

CHAPTER XIV.

PHILOSOPHY AND SCIENCE.

Lord Bacon-The Advancement of Learning-Instauratio MagnaNovum Organum-Thomas Hobbes-The Leviathan-Joseph Glanvil -John Locke-Essay on the Human Understanding-Bishop Berkeley-Hume's Treatise on Human Nature-The Scotch School of Philosophy-Dr. Thomas Reid-Dugald Stewart-Sir James Mackintosh-James Mill-Thomas Brown-Archibald Alison-Bishop Butler-William Paley-Sir William Hamilton-John Stuart Mill— Experimental Science-The Royal Society of London-Dr. Robert Boyle-Sir Isaac Newton-Sir John Herschel-Sir David BrewsterSir Charles Lyell-Hugh Miller-The Testimony of the Rocks— Faraday-Huxley-Tyndall-Charles Darwin-The Origin of Species -The Descent of Man.

MODERN scientific investigation and discovery may be said to have had its beginning with Lord Bacon. Previous to the seventeenth century, philosophy and science had been taught by the methods received from the schoolmen of the Middle Ages. That system of reasoning known as the deductive, or Aristotelian, system, which had been practiced for two thousand years with such barren results, was still in use in the universities and among learned men. "The ancient philosophy disdained to be useful, and was content to be stationary," says Macaulay. says Macaulay. "It dealt largely in theories of moral perfection, which were so sublime that they never could be more than theories; in attempts to solve insoluble enigmas; in exhortations to the attainment of unattainable frames of mind. It could not condescend to the humble office of ministering to the comfort of human beings. All the schools contemned that office as degrading; some censured it as immoral." "Invention," said Seneca, a celebrated disciple of this school of philosophy, "is

drudgery for the lowest slaves; philosophy lies deeper. It is not her office to teach men to use their hands. The object of her lessons is to form the soul." The utter inefficiency of such a system may be understood when we observe that from the time of Aristotle to that of Bacon no great scientific discoveries had been made, save through chance, and philosophy had added nothing whatever to the means of human enjoyment or to the general enlightenment of mankind. The task which Bacon set himself to perform was nothing less than the revolutionizing of the whole system of philosophical inquiry. "Two words form the key of the Baconian doctrine, Utility and Progress." He argued that the end of all philosophy was the discovery of "a rich store-house for the glory of the Creator and the relief of man's estate;" and he held that the barrenness of all previous attempts at an investigation of the laws of nature had resulted from the ineffectual means employed in the study of those laws. A right knowledge of nature, he thought, would give us the means of using her for our own purposes. Hence, discarding the deductive method of reasoning from the general to the particular,—a method which hitherto had been deemed sufficient for every species of investigation, he showed how, in the study of natural science, the opposite, or inductive, method, of reasoning from the particular to the general, is the only true means of reaching desired conclusions.

Bacon's first work in the domain of philosophical speculation, The Advancement of Learning, was published in 1605. It was, to use his own words, "a general and faithful perambulation of learning, with an enquiry what parts thereof lie fresh and waste and not improved and converted by the industry of man; to the end that such a plot, made and recorded to memory, may both minister light to any public designation and also serve to excite voluntary endeavors." This work, which was designed only as a preface to a connected series of treatises, was, at first, written in English, but in 1623 was revised and

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