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for those who come immediately from Africa, cannot bear the cold so well as those who are either born in this country, or have been here for a considerable time; for the frost easily hurts the hands and feet of the negroes which come from Africa, or occasions violent pains in their whole body, or in some parts of it, though it does not at all affect those who have been here for some time. . .

The price of negroes differs according to their age, health, and abilities. A full-grown negro costs from forty pounds and upwards to a hundred, of Pensylvania currency. A negro boy or girl of two or three years old, can hardly be got for less than eight or fourteen pounds in Pensylvania currency. Not only the quakers, but likewise several christians of other denominations, sometimes set their negroes at liberty.

B. Work of a Servant in Virginia, 16561

The work of an indented servant was carefully regulated by the terms of the contract or indenture that was entered into between the servant and the master who paid his passage money. The following advice to intending emigrants who expected to use this method of reaching America shows the usual terms of such a contract.

Let such as are so minded not rashly throw themselves upon the voyage, but observe the nature, and enquire the qualities of the persons with whom they ingage to transport themselves, or if (as not acquainted with such as inhabit there, but go with Merchants. and Mariners, who transport them to others,) let their covenant be such, that after their arrival they have a fort-nights time assigned them to enquire of their Master, and make choyce of such as they intend to expire their time with, nor let that brand of selling of servants, be any discouragement to deter any from going, for if a time. must be served, it is all one with whom it be served, provided they be people of honest repute, with which the Country is well replenished.

And be sure to have your contract in writing and under hand and seal, for if ye go over upon promise made to do this or that, or to be free or your own men, it signifies nothing, for by a law of the Country (waiving all promises) any one coming in and not paying their own passages, must serve if men or women four years, if younger according to their years, but where an Indenture is, that is binding and observing.

The usual allowance for servants is (besides their charge of passage

1 Leah and Rachel: or, the Two Fruitfull Sisters Virginia and Mary-land. By John Hammond (London, 1656). In Force, Tracts and Other Papers (Washington, 1844), III, no. xiv, 11, 14.

defrayed) at their expiration, a years provision of corne, dubble apparrell, tooles necessary, and land according to the custome of the Country, which is an old delusion, for there is no land accustomary due to the servant, but to the Master, and therefore that servant is unwise that will not dash out that custom in his covenant, and make that due of land absolutely his own, which although at the present, not of so great consequence; yet in a few years will be of much worth, as I shall hereafter make manifest. . . .

Those Servants that will be industrious may in their time of service gain a competent estate before their Freedomes, which is usually done by many, and they gaine esteeme and assistance that appear so industrious: There is no Master almost but will allow his Servant a parcell of clear ground to plant some Tobacco in for himself, which he may husband at those many idle times he hath allowed him and not prejudice, but rejoyce his Master to see it, which in time of Shipping he may lay out for commodities, and in Summer sell them again with advantage, and get a Sow-pig or two, which any body almost will give him, and his Master suffer him to keep them with his own, which will be no charge to his Master, and with one years increase of them may purchase a Cow Calf or two, and by that time he is for himself; he may have Cattle, Hogs and Tobacco of his own, and come to live gallantly; but this must be gained (as I said) by Industry and affability, not by sloth nor churlish behaviour.

C. Servants in Pennsylvania, 17751

The largest number of indented servants in any of the colonies was to be found in Pennsylvania, where slavery was opposed by the Quakers. While the term of service seems long as compared with the cost to the master, it was probably in many cases the only system by which the settlers could reach America.

Pensylvania is not without negroe slaves for cultivation, though the number bears no proportion to the white servants; it may also be proper to remark, that there are in this province, and it is the same in others, a difference in the white servants; they have, throughout the province, the same sort of servants that perform work in England, that is, hired by the year, in which case, they are washed, lodged, and boarded, but find their own cloaths; an able bodied man in husbandry, will get from 10l. to 16l. a year sterling. Maids will get so high as 51. to 71. Another sort of white servants, which are unknown in Britain, are the new settlers that are poor. Very many of

1 American Husbandry. By an American (London, 1775), I, 169-70.

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these cannot even pay their passage from Europe, which amounts to iol. sterling, and agree therefore with the captain of the ship, that he shall sell them for a certain number of years to be servants, in which case the farmers buy them, that is, pay their freight, &c. and this usually puts something also in the captain's pocket, beyond what he would otherwise have. If the passenger has some money, but not enough, he is then sold for a shorter time to make up the sum. There are laws in the province to regulate this kind of servitude, which seems very strange to us; the master is bound to feed, clothe, and use the servant as well as others. Others that have money enough to pay for their passage, especially Germans, yet will not pay, but choose to be sold in order to have time to gain a knowledge of the language and the manner of living in the country. Both these sorts of servants are greatly preferred to the common hiring methods; for the wages do not amount to much more than half the other, and at the same time there is a security of keeping them, which with common servants is not the case; nor are these near so industrious. These distinctions in servitude are met with in our other colonies, but they do not occur so often, because for one new comer in them, there are twenty at Philadelphia.

III. SLAVE LABOR

A. The Slave Trade to Virginia, 1708

Slaves were first introduced into America in very large numbers from the West Indies, where they were "seasoned" before being brought to the colder climate of the more northerly regions. After the monopoly of the Royal African Company was broken the larger part of the trade passed into the hands of other traders, among whom were not a few New Englanders. Colonel Jenings was President of the Council of Virginia.

May it please yo' Lordsps,

VIRGINIA November ye 27th 1708

It was the 11th of last moneth and the Fleet then sailed, before I had the honor to receive yo' Lordships of the 15th of April concerning the Negro Trade Since which I have endeavoured by the means of

proper officers, and the informations of the ancient Inhabitants, to answer Yo' Lordps Commands, and in Order thereto have herewith sent yo' Lordships an account of all the Negros imported into this Colony from the 24th of June 1699 to the 12th of October last past

1 Letter from E. Jenings to the Lords of Trade. In Colonial Records of North Carolina, I, 693-4.

distinguishing those imported by the Royal African Company (679), and those by separate Traders (5928), wherein yo' Lordships will perceive the latter have had much the greater Share. As to the particular Rates at which those Negros have been sold, they have been variable according to the different times of their coming in and the quality & ages of the Slaves, but the medium for men & women may be reckoned from 20 to 30 pounds a head for those sold by the Company & from 20 to 35£ a head for the like kinds sold by the separate Traders, who in gen have sold theirs at a higher rate than the Company.

How the Country was supplyed with Negros before the Trade to Africa was laid open in the year 1698. I have endeavoured to Inform my Self from some ancient Inhabitants conversant in that Trade as well as by recollecting what hath happened in my own knowledge, & find that before the year 1680 what negros were brought to Virginia were imported generally from Barbados for it was very rare to have a Negro ship come to this Country directly from Africa since that time, and before the year 1698. the Trade of Negros became more frequent, tho not in any proportion to what it hath been of late, during which the Affrican Company sent several Ships and others by their Licence (as I have been informed) having bought their Slaves of the Company brought them in hither for Sale, Among which I remember the late Alderman Jeffrys & S' Jeffry Jeffrys were principally concerned, but all this time the price of the Negroes was currant from £18 to 25 per head for men and women & never exceeded that Rate. Whether the opening the Trade to Africa having created an Emulation between the Company and the Seperate Traders which should outbid the other in the purchase of their Slaves there, or whether the dexterity of their Factors there in taking advantage of the prevailing humour of our Inhabitants for some years past of buying Negros even beyond their abilities, or the Concurrence of both, hath raised the Rates of Negros so extravagantly, I shall not pretend to determine but this I may venture to say that it will be much harder to lower the price again now tis raised unless there be the same Freedom of Trade continued as formerly for tho the Inhabitants of this Country in gen" will not be so fond of purchasing Negros as of late being sensibly convinced of their Error which has in a manner ruined the Credit of the Country yet there will still be some that must, & others that will at any rate Venture to buy them, & if the Company alone have the management of the Trade, they'l find pretences enough to keep up the price if not to impose what higher

rate they please, which the buyer must submit to, knowing he cannot be supplyed by any other hand. As for vessells trading directly from this place to the Coast of Africa I never knew of any nor is the same practicable this Country not being provided with Commoditys suitable for carrying on such a Trade. This is the best account I am able to give in Answer to yo' Lordships Commands, wherein if I have failed or mistaken in any point I beg yo' Lordships favourable Construction thereof Since I can with truth assure your Lordships that no man hath a greater desire to serve yo' Lordships than

My Lords

Your Lordships

most obedient servant

E. JENINGS

B. Request of a Missionary for Slaves, 17161

Perhaps no more striking illustration could be given of the toleration with which slavery was regarded in the southern colonies, and of the great scarcity of hired labor, than this request of a minister of the gospel for three or four slaves. John Urmstone labored for many years as a missionary in the straggling settlements of the Carolinas and was described by a neighbor as a devout man.

Sir.

NORTH CAROLINA, Dec 15th, 1716

I pray you therefore desire the Treasurer to the Society to pay to Joseph Jekyll Esq' His Majesty's Collector of Customs at Boston in New England, or his order 20 pounds sterling (bills of equal date being produced) and if his correspondent the Bearer hereof will undertake it pay likewise 40 pounds of like money to be invested in goods to buy me 3 or 4 Negroes in Guinea; but if he refuse I beg some body may be employed to engage some Guinea Capt" or Merchant to be delivered to the aforesaid Jo" . . . Jekyll or to me 3 Negroes men of middle stature about 20 years old and a Girl of about 16 years. here is no living without servants there are none to be hired of any colour and none of the black kind to be sold good for anything under 50 or 60£ white servants are seldom worth keeping and never stay out the time indented for. I likewise desire a Bill of Exchange for £20 sterling payable to me or order at Barbadoes. I believe I have more due for according to my account: on the 25th Instant there will be an hundred pounds coming to me. I shall be glad to

1 The Colonial Records of North Carolina. Edited by W. L. Saunders (Raleigh, 1886), II, 260-1.

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