be gained in the United States, by the earth, which yields abundantly, than by manufactures and man places himself in that situation where the greatest and most speedy gain is to be acquired.

As the population must, for many ages, be disproportioned to the extent of the United States, land will be cheap there during the same length of time, and consequently the inhabitants will for a long time be cultivators.

B. The Trade with the Orient, 1784-18001

The enforcement of the navigation acts by England against the United States, which resulted in closing the West Indies to the latter and depriving them of the carrying trade to England, forced American shipowners to seek other markets. There followed after the Revolution one of the most adventurous and dramatic periods of expansion of our foreign trade. Pitkin was a member of the House of Representatives from Connecticut.

The trade of the United States with China commenced soon after the close of the revolutionary war. The first American vessel, that went on a trading voyage to China, sailed from the port of NewYork, on the 22d day of February 1784, and returned on the 11th of May 1785. She was three hundred and sixty tons burthen, commanded by Captain John Green, and Samuel Shaw, Esq., agent for the owners. The Americans were well received by the Chinese government, and since that time, our trade with China has greatly increased.

In 1789, there were fifteen American vessels at Canton, being a greater number, than from any other nation, except Great-Britain. For many years, we have imported more Chinese goods, than were wanted for our consumption, and which we have again exported to other countries. The principal articles imported are teas, silks, nankeens, and China ware. Of these, tea is of the greatest value. The quantity of this article, imported and consumed within the United States, has increased with the increase of population.

The value of goods paying duties ad valorem, which includes nankeens, all silk and cotton goods, and China ware, imported in 1797, from China and the East-Indies generally, but principally from the former, amounted to $922,161. The average value of goods paying the same duties, from China and other native Asiatic powers during the years 1802, 1803, and 1804, was about two millions three hundred thousand dollars. . . .

1 A Statistical View of the Commerce of the United States of America. By Timothy Pitkin (2d edition, New York, 1817), 246-9, passim.

The balance of trade with China, as it appears on the customhouse books, is much against the United States; as few articles, either domestic or foreign, are shipped directly from the United States to that country. The payments for Chinese goods have been generally made in specie, the exportation of which is not entered at the custom-house, or in seal-skins taken in the South-Seas, and furs procured on the North-West Coast of America, and carried from those places, directly to China, without being brought to the United States. The amount of specie exported to China, it is difficult to ascertain with precision. . . . The great prices obtained at Canton, for furs procured on the North-West Coast of America, by those who were with Captain Cook, in his last voyage of discovery, induced others to engage in this trade. The enterprize of the Americans led them very early to engage in these long and hazardous trading voyages. The first of the kind, undertaken from the United States, was from Boston in 1788, in a ship commanded by captain Kendrick. This trade, at first, afforded great profits, to the concerned, and it has, ever since the year 1788, been carried on from the United States, to a considerable extent, and with greater or less profit.

C. The Coasting Trade, 17911

Not merely was foreign trade developing, but the coastwise trade and fisheries were also growing. As long, however, as America depended upon Europe for her manufactured goods and upon China and the East and West Indies for her luxuries, the value and extent of the foreign trade were bound to exceed the coastwise trade.

The coasting trade has become very great, and the derangement of the West-India trade must extend it exceedingly, during the current year, from the failure of melasses. The increase of manufactures, and foreign restrictions on other branches of trade, have contributed to elevate this valuable part of our commerce; and the former will continue steadily to increase the importance of the coasting business. The vessels which take supplies of flour, and many other articles, from the middle and northern states to South-Carolina and Georgia, make very frequent voyages, and they return less than half laden: but if the planters should pursue the cultivation of hemp, flax, hops, and cotton, they may come back with full cargoes. A similar remark may be justly made in regard to the other states.

1 A View of the United States of America. By Tench Coxe (Philadelphia, 1794),

The fisheries would appear not to have recovered their former value; but it is plain, they have increased yearly since 1789: and they are even now more valuable than they appear to be. The consumption of oil, whale-bone, skins of sea animals, spermaceti, and pickled and dried fish, is much greater in the United States at this time, than it was twenty years ago. The outfits of the fishing vessels, too, are more from the industry and resources of the country, than was formerly the case. Wherefore the general benefits resulting from the fisheries are probably not less than before the revolution.

D. Shipbuilding in the United States, 1783-17891

Phineas Bond was a Loyalist who went to England at the time of the Revolution, and was later appointed British Consul at Philadelphia, which post he filled for many years. The following extract is taken from a report to the foreign office of Britain in 1789. It will be noticed that he is very pessimistic as to the prospects of American shipping.

The account I transmit to your Grace (No. 31) of the number of ships now building is very accurate as to the 5 middle states which compose my district, what relates to other states I have collected from the opinions and observations of persons upon whom I could rely: For a short time subsequent to the Peace, my Lord, shipbuilding went on rapidly in the Eastern and Middle States of America

but the restrictions upon the commerce of the country soon discouraged the merchants and the ship builders found themselves without employment. In Philada where this business was carried on formerly to a prodigious extent, a very small proportion of the ship yards are even now occupied - and for a long time ships were so little in demand that some have been on the stocks 2 or 3 years without a purchaser others were roofed in to secure them against the weather and in one instance a small vessel actually rotted upon the stocks: the natural consequence of these discouragements was that the journeymen left or were dismissed from their employ and resorted to Nova Scotia and other parts of the King's dominions where they could earn their bread. The ship wrights for the most part became reduced and their stock of timber being once exhausted, they had no means of replacing it. — Within the last twelve months, my Lord, a combination of circumstances have prevailed to give some sort of relief to the artificers who were possessed of means to pursue

1 Letters of Phineas Bond. In Annual Report of the American Historical Association (Washington, 1897), I, 638–9.

their trades: The prospect of an efficient government - the scarcity in Europe - large crops in America - the actual want of vessels to carry off the produce of the last year, all operated favorably, the extension of the China trade also had its effect, and we may throw into the scale, the discrimination made by the late Federal impost laws (No. 1), by which a discount of 10% is allowed upon the duties on goods and merchandize imported in vessels owned by the citizens of America - All these matters have lately drawn forth some exertions in the matter of ship building the number of vessels now on the stocks seem in a train of being brought forward as fast as the scanty resources of the ship builders and the reduced number of hands will admit, these are not soon or easily supplied so let the encouragement be what it may years must elapse before this useful employment will approach the conditions of profit and consequence it enjoyed antecedent to the war nor is it at all improbable that a reduction of the prices of flour and wheat in Europe would at once check the present exertion and cause many of the vessels now on the stocks to be left dead weight upon the hands of the ship builders: - From all I have observed or can collect my opinion is that the general tonnage of the United States does not increase, but that the tonnage of New Hampshire, Mass. Bay, Pennsyla and Maryland has of late advanced and is now advancing in some degree and that the advance is the effect of adventitious circumstances, which may or may not continue: In short, my Lord whatever tends to encourage the commerce of the country, will enlarge the tonnage of the country and whatever has a contrary operation will produce a contrary effect.

1

E. Comparative Cost of American and French Ships, 1791 1 Owing to the wealth of the forest resources, an American ship could be built for about $34 a ton, while both in England and on the continent, the cost was at least fifty per cent higher. Coxe was well qualified to speak on this subject, and his estimate may be accepted as correct.

The french-built ships cost from 55 to 60 dollars per ton, when fitted to receive a cargo, exclusively of sea stores, insurance, the charges of lading, outward pilotage, and other expenses incidental to the employment, and not to the building and outfit of a vessel. The american live oak and cedar ships, to which none are superior, cost in the same situation, from 33 to 35 dollars, finished very completely.

1A View of the United States of America. By Tench Coxe (Philadelphia, 1794),

F. Comparative Cost of Operation of American and English Vessels,

18051

Not merely in cost of construction, but also in cost of operation did an American vessel have the advantage over its foreign competitors. Under these circumstances, it is no wonder that the growth of the American merchant marine should have been so rapid as to have excited astonishment not only abroad but even in the United States itself. It is interesting to note that this estimate of comparative costs is furnished by an English authority.

COMPARISON of Cost of OPERATION OF AN AMERICAN WITH THAT OF AN ENGLISH VESSEL, EACH OF 250 TONS, IN 1805

On a voyage between England and America and return

Cost of American Vessel of 250 tons, £2,000.
Cost of English Vessel of 250 tons, £4,000.

A ship of 250 tons would carry 3,000 bbls. of flour at 9s.
The average freight from England back..

£1,350

600 £1,950

Insurance out & home on

12 men, 5 months at £5.. 300
Captain and mate at £10

One of the results of the Napoleonic wars was to divert the profitable carrying trade in part from the belligerent nations to the vessels of the only important neutral nation, the United States. The tonnage of American ships engaged in foreign trade increased greatly. But not only was an impetus given to our shipping; agriculture, the products of which were in growing demand in both Europe and England, also experienced a great stimulus and shared in the profits.

1 Report of the Committee of Correspondence on Trade with the East Indies and China. British Parliamentary Papers, 1815. Quoted in Merchant Venturers of Old Salem. By R. E. Peabody (Boston, 1912), 151. Printed by permission of the author and the publishers, Houghton Mifflin Company.

2 Statistical Annals .. of the United States. delphia, 1818), 59-60.

By Adam Seybert (Phila