from the seventh century to the first collisions with the Romans. Ciaceri emphasizes the importance of Sybaris as a trading link with Etruria, and of the Italiotes in general as pioneers of Greek culture. He also attributes to the native Italians a large influence on the Greek immigrants. Like other recent writers, he accepts Zaleucus and Charondas as historical figures, but restricts their work to codification. A similar conclusion about these two nomothets is also reached in a separate investigation by M. Mühl. 1 The vicissitudes of Messana are illustrated in an article by G. De Sanctis, 2 who points out that the omission of the usual marks of honour to its founder (as recorded in a new fragment of Callimachus) formed part of the de-Ionising policy of its Dorian usurpers.

In a study of ancient town plans F. Tritsch draws a suggestive if somewhat hazardous distinction between the settlement of Orientals and Etruscans on the one hand, and of Minoans and Greeks on the other. According to him the cities of the former were mere appendages to the mansions of the mighty, those of the latter developed freely at the initiative of an enterprising bourgeoisie.

(2) Economics. A clear and well-balanced account of Greek currencies is given in A. R. Burn's Money and Monetary Policy in Early Times. 4 Written by a trained economist, this book deals cautiously with the vexed questions of coin-standards and bimetallism. The money of Ptolemaic Egypt (which is not discussed in Burn's book) has been passed in review by the late Th. Reinach, who notes the effective and ever increasing preponderance of copper over silver. 5 A paradigmatic tableau of a normal city-state economy has been postulated by A. Ε. Zimmern. 6

1 Klio, N.S. 4 (1928), pp. 105-124, 432-463.

2 Atti Torino, 1927-8, pp. 112-17.

3 Klio, N.S. 4 (1928), pp. 1-83.

4 K. Paul, 1927, pp. 517, 16 pls., 21s.

• Rev. Ét. Gr., 1928, pp. 121-96.

• Op. cit., ch. 5.

(3) Warfare. -The need of an up-to-date manual on ancient war-craft has now been met in an authoritative work by J. Kromayer and the late G. Veith, assisted by specialist collaborators. 1 The chapters on Greek armies (by Kromayer) deal briefly with organization, but are instructive on strategy and battle-formations. In the section on naval warfare (by A. Köster) the ancient man-of-war is described as an essentially Greek discovery. Similarly the writer on Poliorcetics (E. Shramm) points out that the Roman praefecti fabrum merely exploited Greek inventions. A special feature of this book consists in the excellent illustrations of siege-engines. Another standard work by Kromayer and Veith, their SchlachtenAtlas zur antiken Kriegsgeschichte, has been advanced by a new instalment to illustrate the campaigns of Alexander. Archaic Greek warfare has been studied by E. Kalinka, who shows that archery was already obsolete in the warfare of the Achaeans; 3 by Miss H. L. Lorimer, who comes to the interesting conclusion that the only important change in the panoply of Homer's age, as compared with Agamemnon's, was the substitution of iron for bronze; 4 and by M. Nilsson, who traces the gradual introduction of hoplite tactics in the seventh century and their influence on political development. 5 The dependence of ancient thalassocrats on imported ship-timber, and the influence of this fact upon their policy, have been set forth by A. C. Johnson.

(4) Chronology. The intervals between the Attic calendar year and the prytany-cycle during the Peloponnesian War have been measured by B. D. Meritt, who utilizes the evidence from the annual accounts of the λογισταί, 1 The list of third-century archons at Delphi (which serves as one of the frameworks of Hellenistic chronology) has been revised by R. Flacelière. 2

V. Bibliographies. The past year has been prolific in these. A very full catalogue of works on Greek History, as on other classical subjects, will be found in J. Marouzeau's Dix Années de Bibliographie classique. 3 The more important items are furnished with brief précis and lists of reviews. The historical publications of 1915-25 have been surveyed in a running commentary by Th. Lenschau, 4 and those of 1925-6 in similar fashion by P. Cloché. 5

Reference has already been made to the principal articles on Greek History in vol. 14 of Pauly-WissowaKroll's Real-Encyclopädie (Lysimachos-Mantike).

6

The obituary list of the year includes the names of J. Wells, H. Delbrück, Th. Reinach and K. J. Beloch. Wells will be remembered as a foremost authority on Herodotus, Delbrück as an incisive writer on Greek military history, Th. Reinach as a versatile scholar with a special knowledge of Greek finance. The death of Beloch removes a bold critic of early Greek tradition and a pioneer in the writing of Hellenistic history. This scholar's last articles, written at the age of eighty, retain all his characteristic vigour and directness of argument.

IV

ROMAN HISTORY 1

Bibliographies and Works of Reference.

The second part of J. Marouzeau's Dix années de bibliographie classique (1914-1924)2 contains a full list of publications on Roman History. This is continued in the same author's Bibliographie des années 1924-5 and Bibliographie de l'année 1927.3 In Rev. hist. for 1928 J. Toutain has begun a Bulletin historique : antiquités romaines, 1919-1928, so far confining himself to works which have appeared in French. M. Besnier's Chronique d'histoire ancienne for 1927 is to be found in Rev. des questions historiques, 1928. Storia romana dalle origini alla fine della repubblica, 1923–6, by G. Giannelli, is said to be in Aevum for February, 1928, but this is inaccessible to me. Bibliotheca philologica classica has been brought almost up to date by the publication of Vol. 53 (1927), and L'année épigraphique for 1928 is out.

The fourth and fifth fascicules (Italia Judex) of the Italian Dizionario epigrafico Vol. IV. 4 are now available, and so is some very valuable matter in Paul. Wiss. XIV. I (Lysimachos-Mantike) and III. A. 2 (Sparta-Stluppi), particularly in the former. Finally, British and American scholarship have admirably co-operated to produce a work

1 Scarcity of space has imposed a still more drastic selection, and even greater brevity, than before. Bibliographical details have been cut to the minimum. Books with English titles are published in London, and those with French titles in Paris, unless it is otherwise stated. Oxford" and "Cambridge" indicate the University Presses of these places.