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individuals, with the Sovereign at their head. He opened his free school in the Borough in the year 1800. In the year 1803, in the first edition of his Improvements in Education, (part 3rd. page 44) he wrote thus;-I ought not to close my account, without acknowledging the obligations I lie under to Dr. Bell, of the male asylum at Madras, who so nobly gave up his time, and liberal salary, that he might perfect that institution, which flourished greatly under his fostering care. He published a tract in 1798, entitled an Experiment on Education, made at the male asylum of Madras, suggesting a system whereby a school or family may teach itself, under the superintendence of the master or parent. From this publication I have adopted several useful hints; I beg leeve to recommend it to the attentive perusal of the friends of education, and of youth. I am persuaded nothing is more conducive to the promotion of a system than actual experiment. Dr. Bell had 200 boys, who instructed themselves, made their own pens, ruled their books, and did all that labor in school, which among a number is light, but resting on the shoulders of the well-meaning, and honest, though unwise teacher, often proves too much for his health, and embitters or perhaps costs him his life. I much regret that Î was not acquainted with the beauty of his system, till somewhat advanced in my plan; if I had known it, it would have saved me much trouble, and some retrograde movements. As a confirmation of the goodness of Dr. Bell's plan, I have succeeded with one nearly similar in a school attended by almost 300 children.

Mr. Lancaster was afterwards vain enough to state, in the public papers, that having 'invented under the blessing of Divine Providence, a new and mechanical system of education, for the use of schools, he feels anxious to disseminate the knowledge of its advantages through the united kingdom;' and vanity was his complete overthrow. He had the merit we have willingly ascribed to him, and, in addition to this, he invented a few economical practices in the use of slates and spelling cards, which are equally applicable to all schools conducted on the new system, and which have been adopted in Dr. Bell's school, without any denial of their origin, just as the sand-writing and syllabic spelling were confessedly borrowed from Dr. Bell. He invented also a variety of ew punishments, in the application of which his scholars were made the correctors, no less than the instructors of each other; and many of which were of a nature very questionable in their bearing on the moral character; that is, calculated to make the pupils insolent, turbulent, and overbearing.

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Sorry we are to add, that not only was the question of originality agitated at first with many bitter personal feelings between the friends of these parties, but it insensibly mingled itself with religious controversy. An advocate on the side of Dr. Bell, and the Madras system, says with great candor: 'We are sorry to admit that there was no great appearance of acceleration in the proceedings of the Church, till Mr. Lancaster started up with all the eagerness and activity of a sectary-with all the zeal of a missionary

with all the adventitious motives and practices of a person whose subsistence and reputation depended upon the success of his plan; and fortified with all the countenance and support of the host of sectaries, whose eagle-eyes perceived at a glance what an opportunity was offered, at once to place the cause of humanity in opposition to that of the Church,-what a glorious occasion was presented to associate in the minds of the people the ideas of charity and dissent.' British Review, No. 6.

Mr. Lancaster, and what was now called the British system, admitted and taught the reading of the Bible, in fact, into the schools founded upon his plan, but excluded all catechisms. Impelled by all these aids and motives, continues the above writer, Mr. Lancaster soon became the prominent character on the canvass, and by the great mass, both of the clergy and laity, who had never heard of Dr. Bell, was considered as the necessary, indeed the only instrument through whom the new system could be carried into practice. And we shall ever consider it as reflecting immortal honor on many zealous ministers of the church, that the practicability of the plan was no sooner shown by Mr. Lancaster, than they immediately lent him their countenance; and finding to their regret that no propositions, having in view the general instruction of the poor, were then circulated and enforced by the authority of the church as a body, they trusted to their own individual exertions to make Mr. Lancaster's plan square as well as they could with the interests of the church. We should certainly have been glad to see her interfere sooner, as soon indeed as it was evident and publicly notified by experience that the new system imported by Dr. Bell was a practicable one for the instruction of the poor. We should then have been furnished with a stronger argument than we now possess for repelling the sneering insinuations of those, who lose no opportunity of observing, that, but for the exertions of Mr. Lancaster and his partisans, and the fear and emulation which they have excited, the prospects of general instruction for the poor would have been very different from what they now are. By whatever means, however, the effect was produced, the Church is at length roused, and those who wish to secure to the rising generation of the people a knowledge of the excellence of her doctrines, may now do so without any alloy of danger, which even the most trembling solicitude for her safety can entertain.'

The question of the comparative economy of the two schools has been thus stated:-Dr. Bell introduced the knowledge of sand-writing and syllabic spelling, which Mr. Lancaster confessedly borrowed from him. Mr. Lancaster, having first opened a large school, introduced the economical use of slates in many cases where paper-books were necessarily used at Madras. But these slates are now used in Dr. Bell's schools. Mr. Lancaster also invented a large card, with the letters and short words printed thereon, one of which stuck against the wall serves the whole class to read from: whereas Dr. Bell prefers that each child should have a small card of its own, which it may look at and

con over at its pleasure. The difference in the first cost of these instruments amounts to about seven shillings per 100 children yearly; and the use of either is a matter of mere opinion as to the advantage of giving each child's lesson into its own hand. Many of Dr. Bell's schools use the large cards, many of Mr. Lancaster's the small ones; a few Bibles and Testaments are admitted to be as necessary in Mr. Lancaster's

schools as in Dr. Bell's. So that in fact the two

schools are now on a perfect equality as to expense. The use of slates, or of paper books, for writing and ciphering, depends on the respective tastes of the master or patrons. If they think the pride and pleasure which a child and his parents take in looking back upon the records of the progress he has made will more than repay the expense of paper books, they will adopt them. If they think otherwise, or if their funds are very confined, they will reject them. The system will be neither the better nor the worse for their determination either way, or for the adoption or omission of the small or the large card, or for a multitude of other things, about which much noise has been made.

The Madras system has become the basis of the National Schools connected with the established church throughout the kingdom; and large and well earned are its triumphs over the wretchedness and ignorance of the poor. The British and Foreign School Society, into which the British system is now merged, is, on the other hand, principally in the hands of dissenters; nor can it be denied the meed of praise for great and noble exertions in the cause of universal education. Mr. Lancaster, as we have intimated, has worn out his warmest friends in this country by his personal vanity and extravagant conduct; but the system is under very respectable and disinterested management. It is said, by competent judges, that the pupils of the National Schools excel in reading; while those of the British and Foreign School system are superior in their acquaintance with arithmetic.

But the plans of Dr. Bell were yet more extended. He himself gave the public, in 1815, an interesting, though somewhat verbose, publication, entitled 'Ludus Literarius: the Classical and Grammar School; or an Exposition of an Experiment in Education, made at Madras in the years 1789-1796; with a view to its Introduction into Schools for the Higher Orders of Children,' 8vo.: and at the Charter-house, and some respectable private seminaries, the advantages of mutual instruction among pupils have been most successfully applied.

In proposing,' says Dr. Bell, 'to transfer the Madras system of education into schools of a higher order, and especially into grammar schools, I make no pretension to superior attainments in literature, nor do I presume to vie with the learned preceptors of our classical schools in skill in languages, or in sciences.

To teach a teacher ill becometh me.

The task I have in hand is of a less elevated description, and does not require deep erudition. It is not the science of letters, but the art of tuition, or the mode of communicating that science,

of which I am to treat. I do not purpose to add to the master's stock of knowledge, but to put into his hands machinery, by which he may bring down his learning to the level of the capacity of children, disseminate his knowledge among his pupils, and by the simplest instruments, and gentlest means, establish order, check vice, and uphold virtue. For such schools I have no new discovery to develop, no new system to suggest, no improvement on the Madras invention to offer. All I propose is, to show, more particularly than I have heretofore done, the applicabi lity of that invention to schools of other descriptions, than those in which it has long been employed with uniform success. Beyond this the reader need expect nothing entirely original; at the same time, it is true, that in the rudiments of the Latin grammar, independently of this ma chinery, which will embrace every branch of the scholars' studies, other methods of proceeding will be recommended with regard to elementary lessons, and the introduction to syntax, parsing, and prosody, than those which are usually followed. In the principles, however, on which these processes depend, nay, perhaps in the processes themselves, the master will find nothing but what has been suggested before. He may see nothing but what he knew before, or at least will think, as soon as he has read it, that he knew before-so simple, so plain, and so true shall it be. But my solicitude is, that it may be known in the way which may avail both for the master and his pupil.'

He afterwards proceeds to propose the 'scheme of a school on the model of the Madras system,’ which, as it is a key to this great improvement, in all its forms, we subjoin complete :

1. The asylum, like every well regulated school, is arranged into forms or classes, each composed of as many scholars as, having made a similar progress, unite together.

The scholar ever finds his own level, not only in his class, but also in the ranks of the school, being promoted or degraded from place to place according to his relative proficiency.

'So much for the general formation of a school. Now more particularly of the Madras Asylum.

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2. Each class is, when preparing their lessons by themselves, paired off into tutors and pupils. Thus in a class of thirty-six scholars, the eighteen best and most trusty are tutors respectively to the eighteen worst.

'This arrangement, by no means an important link in the chain of self-tuition, is frequently dispensed with, and when continued lessons take place, as in the schools of the National Society, it is of course superseded.

3. To each class is attached an assistant teacher, whose business is, as the name implies, to act under, with, or for the teacher.

4. The teacher who, with his assistant, has charge of the class, as well when learning, as saying their lessons, and is responsible for their order, behaviour, diligence, and improvement. 'Both the teacher, and his assistant, say their lessons with their class.

5. A sub-usher, and usher (or rather a competent number of ushers), are appointed, when necessary, to inspect the school, watch over the

whole, and give their instruction and assistance wherever wanted, as the agents and ministers of the master.

6. The schoolmaster, whose province it is to direct and conduct the system in all its ramifications, and to see all the subordinate offices carried into effect.

7. Last of all comes the superintendent (who may be the chaplain of the establishment, parochial minister, secretary, treasurer, trustee, or visitor), whose scrutinising eye must pervade the whole maching, whose active mind must give it energy, and whose unbiassed judgment must inspire confidence, and maintain the general order and harmony.

What goes before comprises the system of tuition by teachers and ushers, or, as they are often called, monitors.

What follows is for the purposes of precision and inspection, and as checks and instruments of discipline in the execution and superintendence of the above plan.

8. On the front of the teachers' and assistants' books, when taken in hand, is written with ink the year and day of the month; and through out their books, the end of each lesson, when given out, is noted by a score with a pencil. Also the sum of the daily lessons (so noted in the marked book), and the other tasks of the day, likewise the individual proficiency of each scholar are entered in a register book for the master's use, and the visitors' reference and inspection.

9. Black book, as the boys call it, or register of such offences as require serious animadversion, and a weekly scrutiny by

10. A jury of twelve boys-the peers of the culprits.

Under perfect instruction, and the able and impartial administration of the laws of the school, the 9th and 10th regulations become a dead letter; the general laws of inspection and emulation being found sufficient for the purpose of discipline.

This, in brief, is the scheme of the Madras system of education, framed on an extensive scale, and in a multiplied form, fitted for a numerous school.'

We can only admit his further observations On the effects of equalised classification.'

1. Equalised classification extends perfect instruction to every member of a school.

From the law of classification, by which every scholar claims and assumes his place, not according to his standing or length of time in school, but to his actual proficiency and acquirerents, determined by a fair and constant competition with his school-fellows, and is ranked, by this impartial and unerring law, with those with whom he is on a footing of equality; it necessarily follows that no scholar either retards others in their daily course, or is retarded himself: his station in the school, and progress in learning, always bear a just proportion to his talents and industry. No idleness, on the one hand, is occasioned by the want of sufficient employment, from his having his lessons prepared long before those with whom he is associated; and, on the other hand, no scholar is oppressed by the burden of tasks, to which he is unequal,

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nor his progress stayed by the length and difficulty of lessons, which he cannot overtake.

'Hence it is, that, in a Madras school, a complete acquaintance with every lesson is not, as too frequently happens, confined to scholars of superior parts or industry, but is extended and insured to every scholar in every class; hence too it is, that while there is no let or hindrance to the career of memory, judgment, or genius, there is also an end to dunces in our schools. One boy outstrips another in his gymnasium-his scholastic career; but he who is left behind is master of the inferior ground which he occupies, as well as the other is of the superior station which he has attained. Falsa enim est querela, paucissimis hominibus vim percipiendi quæ tradantur, esse concessam; plerosque vero laborem ac tempora tarditate ingenii perdere, &c.

It is an unfounded complaint, that very few learners are naturally endowed with the faculty of understanding the lessons which are prescribed to them, and that most do in reality lose their labor and time from defect of genius. Quite otherwise is the fact: for you will find the generality of men quick in conception, and prompt to learn. This is the characteristic of man. As birds are destined by nature to fly, horses to run, and wild beasts to be ferocious: so to us is peculiar the (agitation) working and sagacity of the mind. Hence it is believed, that the human soul is of celestial origin. The dull and the indocile are no more comformable to the nature of man, than bodies which are accounted prodigies and monsters. But these are very rare. fact the good promise, which the generality of children display, is a sufficient proof. And, when it dies away and disappears with age, it is manifest that the fault does not originate in any real deficiency of nature, but arises from want of due culture. It cannot indeed be denied that one excels another in genius, and that some make greater, some less, proficiency. But none can be found who have derived no benefit from study.

Of this

'How happily has the Madras system of education illustrated this position, to a degree beyond the conception of the greatest minds of former times! And what an acquisition is it, to the science of instruction, that every scholar who enters a school shall derive continual and progressive improvement during the period of his stay, having his understanding cultivated, and his memory exercised and improved in exact proportion to the strength of the faculties which he possesses!

No longer will even a single learner quit a school thus conducted, without having all along been duly occupied in the improvement of his talents, and in the increase of his attainments. None will now by reason of the difficult and disproportioned course of their studies, and the ill assortment of the classes, and by imperfect instruction in the beginning, pass through the forms of their school, as those who wander through a dark and dreary wilderness, toiling and fatiguing themselves to find an exit, without a ray of light, of comfort, or of profit, to their benighted minds—a state in which many were wont to remain till they left school. To others, and those I fear few in number, the time

comes when, after a tedious, irksome, and unprofitable process, age ripens their faculties, and they begin to understand and to relish their daily exercises, and to derive from them profit and pleasure that profit and pleasure, which, by a sad perversion of instruction, are commonly denied them at the early periods of their studies. 2. But the new classification not only extends the benefit of perfect instruction to every member of a school alike; but also, by the love of imitation which it indulges, and feeds, and by the emulation which it creates, calls forth the exertion, and accelerates the progress, of each and every scholar.

'As those children, whose talents or rather acquirements are nearly equal, rank in the same class, a spirit of imitation and competition is kept in perpetual action. A lively degree of interest is given to all their occupations, their attention is kept constantly awake, and the several powers of their minds are called forth into constant exercise, by the incessant application of two of the most powerful principles of our nature the desire of eminence and distinction, and the dread of shame and degradation.'

Dr. Bell's proposals for adapting Lilye's

grammar to his new system, and his general plan of instruction with respect to the rudiments of the Latin language, occupy the latter part of his work, and we can only refer our readers to its pages for further information on this point. In conclusion, he says, 'What I seek, as the grand consummation of my labors, and completion of my design, is to put into the hands of our learned and able masters, that new organ of the human mind which is fitted, in a wonderful degree, to minister to their ease, comfort, and utility, as well as to the satisfaction, delight, and improvement of their scholars: and by which alone they can render their institutions in future, what they have been for the past-faithful and true nurseries of youth to the good of the nation, to the character of our nobles, and to the glory of God. If so much has been done towards these ends with the former method of cultivating their rich soils, what fruitful crops may not comparatively be expected from the vast improvements in the art of cultivating the human mind, to which the new machinery has given rise?'

We may add that a Latin, as well as Greek Grammar, has been published on the plan he recommends, by the Charter House.

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EDULCORATION, in chemistry, properly signifies the rendering substances more mild. It consists almost always in taking away acids and other saline substances; and this is effected by washing the bodies to which they adhere in a large quantity of water. The washing of diaphoretic antimony, powder of algaroth, &c., till the water comes off quite pure and insipid, are instances of chemical edulcoration.

EDULCORATION, in pharmacy, is merely the sweetening of juleps, potions, and other medicines, by adding sugar or syrup.

EDWARD FORT, a fort in Nova Scotia, in the town of Windsor in Hans county, said to be large enough to contain 100 men. It is situated on Avon River, which is navigable thus far for vessels of 400 tons: those of sixty tons can go two miles higher.

at Stratford, in Essex, April 3d, 1694. Upon EDWARDS (George), F. R. A. SS., was born leaving school he was put apprentice to a tradesman in Fenchurch-street; but Dr. Nicolas, a relation of his master's, having left him his books, which were removed to an apartment occupied by Edwards, he eagerly employed his leisure hours in perusing them, which entirely deprived him of all inclinations for business, and he resolved to travel. In 1716 he visited the principal towns in Holland, and in about a month returned to England. Two years after he took a voyage to Norway, at the invitation of a gentleman, who was nephew to the master of the ship in which he embarked. At this time Charles XII. -was besieging Fredericshall; in consequence of which our young naturalist was confined by the Danish guard, who supposed him to be a spy employed by the Swedes. However, upon obtaining testimonials of his innocence, a release was granted. In 1718 he returned to England, and next year visited Paris, by the way of Dieppe. During his stay in France he made two journeys of 100 miles each; the first to Chalons, in Champagne, in May, 1720; the second on foot, to Orleans and Blois : but an edict happening at that time to be issued for securing vagrants, to transport them to America, as the banks of the Mississippi wanted population, our author narrowly escaped a western voyage. On his arrival in England, Mr. Edwards closely pursued his favorite study of natural history, applying himself to drawing and coloring such animals as fell under his notice

EDWARDS.

A strict attention to natural, more than picturesque beauty, claimed his earliest care: birds first engaged his attention; and, having purchased some of the best pictures of these subjects, he was induced to make a few drawings of his own; which were admired by the curious, who encouraged ee young naturalist to proceed, by paying a good price for his labors. Among his first patrons and benefactors may be mentioned James Theobalds, Esq., of Lambeth. Our artist, thus unexpectedly encouraged, increased in skill and assiduity; and procured, by his application to his favorite pursuit, both a decent subsistence and a large acquaintance. In 1731 he made an excursion to Holland and Brabant, where he collected several scarce books and prints, and saw the original pictures of several great masters. In December 1733, by the recommendation of the great Sir Hans Sloane, Bart., president of the College of Physicians, he was chosen librarian, and had apartments in the college. By degrees he became one of the most eminent ornithologists in this or any other country. His merit is so well known in this respect, as to render any eulogium He never on his performances unnecessary. trusted to others what he could perform himself; and often found it so difficult to give satisfaction to his own mind, that he frequently made three or four drawings to delineate the object in its most lively character and attitude. In 1743 the first volume of his History of Birds was published in 4to. Ilis subscribers exceeding even his most sanguine expectations, a second volume appeared in 1747. The third was published in 1750; and the fourth in 1751. This volume being the last he intended to publish, he seems to have considered it as the most perfect of his productions in natural history, and wrote a curious dedication of it to the great God of nature. Our author, in 1758, continued his labors under a new title, viz. Gleanings of Natural History. A second volume of the Gleanings was published in 1760. The third part, which made the seventh and iast volume of his works, appeared in 1764. The whole of his works contain engravings and descriptions of more than 600 subjects in natural history, not before described or delineated. He likewise added a general index in French and English; which was afterwards perfected, with the Linnæan names, by Linnæus himself, who honored him with his friendship and correspondence. On St. Andrew's day, 1750, Mr. Edwards was presented, by the president and council of the Royal Society, with the gold Copley medal. He was a few years afterwards elected F. R.S. and F.A.S., London; and a member of various academies of sciences and learning in different parts of Europe. His collection of drawings, which amounted to upwards of 900, was purchased by the earl of Bute. After the publication of his last work, being arrived at his seventieth year, he retired from public employment to a house which he had purchased at Plaistow; where he was afflicted with cancer in the eyes, and the stone, a complaint to which, at different periods of his life, he had been subject. Yet, in the severest paroxysms of misery, he was scarcely known to VOL. VII.

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utter a complaint. Having completed his eightieth
year, emaciated with age and sickness, he died
July 23d, 1773, lamented by a numerous ac-
quaintance.

EDWARDS (Richard), a minor English poet
and dramatist of considerable powers, was born
in Somersetshire in 1523, and educated at Corpus
Christi College, Oxford. He afterwards became
a student, and graduated at Christ Church. At
the beginning of the reign of queen Elizabeth,
he was one of the gentlemen of the royal chapel,
and teacher of the children. Much esteemed as
a poet and musician by his contemporaries, his
death, in 1566, was greatly lamented. He wrote
Damon and Pythias, a comedy, acted at court
and printed in 1570; Palemon and Arcite, a
comedy acted before queen Elizabeth at Christ
Church; Sonnets to the beauties of the courts of
Mary and Elizabeth in MS., in the British Mu-
seum, and several poems, included in his Para-
dise of Dainty Devices.

EDWARDS (John), an English divine, and controversial writer, born at Ilertford in 1637. His father, Thomas Edwards, was a furious presbyterian, and wrote with equal zeal against the episcopalians and independents; but, when the latter party prevailed, he withdrew to Holland, where he died in 1646. A work of his, entitled Gangræna, exhibits a curious picture of the religious divisions of that period. John received his education first at Merchant Taylor's school, London, and afterwards St. John's College, Cambridge, where he was chosen fellow. He married in 1676, and was soon after presented to the living of St. Peter's, Colchester. Here he continued only about three years, when he removed to Cambridge, took his degree of D.D., and from this time employed himself chiefly in writing. He published a vast number of books, not a few of them practical, but the greater part on controversial subjects. His opinions were Calvinistic. He died in 1716. The most esteemed of his works is his Preacher, in 3 vols.

EDWARDS (Jonathan), an American divine, was born at Windsor, in Connecticut, in 1703, and educated at Yale College, where he took his In 1722 he became preacher to degrees in arts. a presbyterian congregation at New York; and,. in 1724, was chosen tutor of Yale College; which station he resigned in 1726, and removed to Northampton to assist his grandfather, who was minister there. He remained at Northampton till 1750, when he was dismissed from his situation for refusing to administer the sacrament to those who could not give proofs of their conversion. In 1751 he went as a missionary among the Indians, and, in 1757, was elected president of the college of New Jersey, which station he did not long enjoy; for next year, 1758, he was attacked by the small pox, which proved fatal. Mr. Edwards's works demonstrate him to have been an acute metaphysician, and strict Calvinist He wrote, 1. A Treatise concerning Religious Affections; 2. The Life of David Brainerd, a Missionary; 3. Narrative of the Work of God in the Conversion of many Hundred Souls in Northampton; 4. An Enquiry into the Modern 2 Ꮓ prevailing Notion of that Freedom of Will, which

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