can be found running through the uses of the Latin subjunctive a common strain that gives unity to the various functions of the mood. To discover this common strain is the object of the "quest," an investigation which proceeds along rather unusual lines. To put in a clear light the method followed, it is necessary to review briefly certain principles of the psychology of language.

Roughly speaking, three mental processes are associated with verbal communication between two persons, namely (1) the birth of the thought in the mind of the speaker, (2) the process by which the thought is clothed in words, and (3) the steps by which the hearer (through the words) discerns the speaker's thought. Unfortunately, the nomenclature of psychological syntax is sometimes applied in such a way as to obscure the difference between processes (1) and (2). As a matter of fact, of course, the two things may be absolutely distinct; for a speaker's thought may be quite clear to himself (i.e. he may know exactly "what he wants to say") before he begins to choose a form of words by which to unfold the idea to the hearer.

The birth of the thought in the mind of the speaker (process 1) we may well leave to the professed psychologist; but the student of syntax is vitally interested in processes (2) and (3), which have to do with the transmission of thought from speaker to hearer; and the value to syntax of study along these lines is abundantly demonstrated by the discovery of such illuminating principles as that of defining parataxis, a doctrine upon which Sonnenschein places much dependence in the present paper.

It was probably through a study of the process by which the speaker's thought is clothed in words that the principle of defining parataxis was discovered. The workings of this principle can well be illustrated in connection with the words "Be gone," a phrase which (according to circumstance) may express entreaty, imperative demand, or permission. Ordinarily the tone of a speaker using these words would sufficiently indicate the color of the thought, yet there are often added co-ordinate defining phrases which put the matter beyond the peradventure of a doubt. The addition of such supplementary defining phrases is particularly common in colloquial speech, and in written documents (where the tone of voice is lost) they are specially helpful in determining the meaning; for example: (1) Be gone at once, I pray you (entreaty); (2) Be gone at once. I'll brook no delay (imperative demand); (3) Be gone at once. None shall hinder you (permission). From the point of view of the process by which thought is clothed in words (process 2), it would seem natural to say that the central phrase in the above examples illustrates three distinct uses of the imperative mood, and that the defining parataxis in each case simply helps to make more explicit the meaning which the writer or speaker means the central phrase to convey. But Sonnenschein, who apparently is working from the point of view of the steps by which the hearer arrives at the writer's or

speaker's thought (process 3), evolves an argument which gives a very different turn to the doctrine of defining parataxis.

Thus, of the above illustrative sentences he would say that, since in each case it is the speaker's tone of voice and the defining phrase that make clear to the hearer the notion of entreaty, imperative demand, or permission, it follows that the imperative mood ("Be gone") does not per se express any one of these notions; rather, it is the expression of a more general idea which lies at the root of each of these particular notions, and thus binds together all the uses of the mood into a unity.

Applying this method of argument to the subjunctive, Sonnenschein examines the standard categories of subjunctive meaning (prospective, volitive, etc.), endeavoring to strip from each any accessory notion that might in any concrete case be gathered by the hearer from the tone of the speaker, defining phrases, or any other auxiliary source. In this way he hopes to discover, so to speak, a core of pure subjunctive meaning underlying all the specific uses of that mood and establishing its unity. Such a common element he believes is found in the notion of obligation, and devotes the latter part of the paper to showing how this idea underlies the uses of the subjunctive even in dependent clauses.

Many will question the validity of the assumption that we can reach a core of modal meaning by subtracting all the defining elements which involve the particular instances of the use of a given mood. For, even looking at the matter from the point of view of the process by which the hearer arrives at the speaker's or writer's thought, it might very well be argued that a given mood stands in general for several distinct meanings, and that the defining elements in a concrete case simply help the hearer to decide which of the different meanings the speaker or writer intends the mood form to convey; just as when a Latin sentence opens with an adjective with the termination -a, the hearer or reader realizes at once that the word stands in some particular case, but what that case is he cannot determine until the context sheds its light on the situation. (The force of this argument will be the more manifest if written examples are used, thus excluding the defining elements of a speaker's tone and manner.)

Aside from the question of method, it will perhaps also be said that if obligation is a conception that pervades all uses of the subjunctive, it is strange that we have been so slow to realize that dominating note of the mood; and many will object to certain interpretations in particular, such as that by which putes, videas, etc., are made to appear as "shall" subjunctives.

But such considerations do not determine the value of Sonnenschein's monograph, which, as recording the impressions of a mature and sympathetic student of Latin, may be read with interest and profit by all. The interpretations are often illuminating, and the whole is pervaded by a literary atmosphere as pleasing as it is rare in treatises on syntax.

H. C. NUTTING

Die Buchrolle in der Kunst: archäologischantiquarische Untersuchungen zum antiken Buchwesen. Von THEODOR BIRT.

Mit 190 [191] Abbildungen. Pp. ix+352. Leipzig:
Teubner, 1907.

Just twenty-five years have elapsed between the appearance of Theodor Birt's Antikes Buchwesen and the present work. Although, perhaps, it is less important in scope and subject-matter than the earlier book, this elaborate study of the scroll as it appears in art is a useful contribution, exhibiting the same qualities of untiring search for all possible material bearing on the theme, fresh judgments on that material, careful exposition of fact, often enlivened by a pertinent comparison with modern practice, and a genius for classification which in combined comprehensiveness and attention to detail is admirable, even for a German. After treating the Egyptian use of the scroll, Birt proceeds to distinguish and characterize seven types of gesture and posture assumed in holding the papyrus roll. Five are observed when the book is still unrolled; one belongs to the actual reading, and one attitude is typical of the interruption or ending of the reading.

The last quarter-century since Das antike Buchwesen was published has been notable for its advances in the field of papyrology, and one section is accordingly devoted to a reconsideration of the Greek and Roman book in the light of this later information. Birt takes up again such topics as the rise of the book among the Greeks, its material and form, the arrangement of the writing, titles, seals, and libraries, with the various sorts of repositories for storing books. This is perhaps the most important section for the student of literature. Besides a mastering of the literary evidence, we have here all the testimony that vase-paintings, statues, and reliefs on stelae and sarcophagi can afford. This portion of the book is a welcome supplement to the more concise expositions of Dziatzko and Kenyon.

There follows a noteworthy section on the Column of Trajan, conceived of as a monumental picture-book, set up in the central court of Trajan's library to publish his exploits. The author ingeniously compares the Spartan skytale: the scenes in the Trajanic wars are in like fashion wound round a shaft to make an ἄγγελος ὀρθός, ηὐκόμων σκυτάλα Μοισάν. The discussion closes with an account of the survival of the ancient book-form and attitude assumed in reading it in the Middle Ages, and with a classified table of the monuments cited throughout the work. The illustrations are uneven in scale and execution, but one leaves the reading of this lucid and well-printed book with the feeling that here, at least, archaeology and philology have been combined with fruitful results. CHARLES BURTON GULICK

HARVARD UNIVERSITY

Manuel de paléographie latine et française. Par MAURICE PROU. 3e Édition, entièrement refondue. Accompagnée d'un album de 24 planches. Paris: Alphonse Picard et Fils, 1910. 8vo, pp. 509.

The extensive changes in this new edition of Próu's manual make it a much more useful handbook on Latin paleography, especially for classical students, by whom the former editions were consulted chiefly on account of the "Dictionnaire des Abbréviations." The present edition is not merely a revision of the second edition of 1892, but is in many respects practically a new work. A thoroughgoing rearrangement of the material has been made in the direction of a more systematic treatment. The order of the chapters has been considerably changed, and new chapters and sections have been added to fill up the manifest lacunae in the older work, and to bring the new edition abreast of recent developments. The increase in the number of pages from 403 to 509 does not fully represent the increase in the scope of the work, for the reason that the facsimiles, which were formerly printed in the body of the work, have been consigned to a separate album of 24 plates, and further space has been saved by the transfer to footnotes of much of the detailed information which in the former edition broke the continuity of the text.

Chap. vi, which, in the older edition, dealt with the writing materials and writing instruments of the Middle Ages only, has been rewritten to include the imperial period of Rome as well, and now forms chap. i of the new edition. The section on papyrus, in particular, has been greatly augmented in the light of the papyri discovered in Egypt in recent years by Petrie and by Grenfell and Hunt, and has been furnished, in the footnotes, with an extensive special bibliography of the recent literature. The pre-Carolingian period (chap. i of the second edition) is now divided into two chapters (ii and iii of the new edition), the first dealing with the Roman scripts, and the second with the national hands. The chapter on the Roman scripts has now prefixed to it a brief account of the Latin alphabet, and the arrangement of the scripts under majuscule and minuscule is much more rational than that of the previous edition. The capital cursive now precedes the uncial script, and receives a much more extensive treatment, which takes full account of the additional examples of the older Roman cursive found in the papyri of Egypt. Its historical development is illustrated by a chronological table tracing the growth of the cursive characters in Egypt from 41 to 247 A.D. The later cursive of the Ravenna documents is now treated as a minuscule cursive, and the semi-uncial script as a pre-Caroline minuscule. The section which dealt with the national hands has now been expanded into a chapter, and gives a fuller and more rational treatment of their development. The relationship of the Lombardic, Merovingian, and Visigothic hands

to the minuscule cursive, concerning which nothing is said in the older edition, is now clearly set forth, and the arrangement of the chapter is improved by waiving claims of patriotism and giving the Lombardic hand precedence over the Merovingian. The chapter on Abbreviations has been expanded in two directions, (1) by a much fuller discussion of the contractions of Nomina Sacra, and their origin, in the light of the recent work of Ludwig Traube (1907), and (2) by the addition of a section of seventeen pages, written by Maurice Jusselin, on Notae Tironianae and their relationship to the abbreviations of the Middle Ages. In the chapters on the Carolingian and post-Carolingian periods alterations are relatively fewer. The author has neglected the opportunity to remedy a manifest defect of the previous edition in connection with the latter of these two periods, and particularly the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. He has again made the mistake of confining himself too closely in his treatment of the book hands to the MSS of France, to the neglect of the rest of Europe, and Italy in particular, which at this time is, to the Latinist at least, quite as important as France. The "Dictionnaire des Abbréviations" has undergone no change except that to it is now prefixed a brief historical account of previous collections of a similar nature.

To sum up, the value of a very useful book has been greatly increased by the addition of much new material, and a more systematic arrangement of the old.

F. W. SHIPLEY

Kosmas und Damian. Texte und Einleitung. Von LUDWIG DeubNER. Leipzig und Berlin: Teubner, 1907. Pp. 1-240.

In his book De Incubatione (Leipzig, 1900) Deubner devoted a section of his chapter on incubation in the Christian church to the miracle-working saints, Cosmas and Damian. His present work gives us a series of critical texts with an elaborate introduction and full indices.

The Greek church recognized three pairs of saints by the name of Cosmas and Damian: one of Asiatic origin, the second Roman, the third Arabian. Their festivals, as recorded in the Synaxarium of the church, fall respectively on November 1, July 1, and October 17. It has, however, long been recognized that only one of these pairs can be original, from which the other two have been derived. That the original was in all probability the Asiatic pair Deubner shows conclusively. Their cult and the legends of their lives and marvelous works began in Constantinople, where the two saints were the Christian successors of the Dioscuroi, whose shrine of healing was founded by the eponymous Byzas, according to the legend preserved in a fragment of Hesychius of Miletus. Although Deubner makes the succession