teachers. They are there to fill orders and to execute work as mechanics. In the mechanic-arts laboratory the sole function of the skilled people in charge is to teach. 3. In a commercial shop every man is kept at work at what he can do best, and everything contributes to the production of articles for the market. In a mechanicarts laboratory, when a boy or a class has learned a process or mastered a material, work ceases in that direct on and something else is learned. The only product of a school laboratory of any great importance is the boy himself, and everything which does not contribute to his training and culture is excluded. From the above it is clearly evident that the more a manual training school is made into a factory the less it is a school.

It goes without saying that manual training is but one feature of a secondary school. It occupies but two of the six periods on the school programme, and does not require home study. When such study is counted and added to the time given to mathematics, science, language, and literature, it is evident that manual training occupies, in a well-organized school, not more than one-fourth of the time and intellectual energy of the faithful pupil.

DRAWING.

The rudiments of freehand and mechanical drawing should go hand in hand through the course, covering lettering, orthographic, cabinet, isometric, and perspective projections; intersections, developments, tinting, line and brush shading; shadows; the details of machine and building construction; ornament, ancient and modern; tracing, blueprinting. pen sketching, with some use of water colors. Such are the elements to be combined in proper proportion.

DOMESTIC SCIENCE.

Domestic science and art for the girls is the counterpart of manual training. It may properly include some light woodwork, and nearly all the drawing already laid down, and, in addition, art study and practice, house decoration, needle and sewing-machine work, garment cutting and fitting, cooking and household economics.

INDUSTRIAL TRAINING.

Under the cover and name of manual training more or less industrial work has been introduced into schools of different grades. Basket making, with woods and with grasses; bookbinding, with special emphasis upon the use of colors, leather, gilt, etc.; hat making; blanket weaving; gardening, etc. Among the Indians we have been pleased to note the general introduction of industries suited to particular localities. Among white children such occupations have much of educational value for young children, but they are liable to be ends, rather than the means, in intellectual and moral growth; they aim rather at ideas of luxury than at household thrift and economy. Such things should be called "elementary manual training," or they should be called what they really are" industries," or "arts" and crafts."

Industrial training properly so called is lacking in definite characteristics; it becomes trade training when boys are placed in commercial shops and put upon productive work for full days or half days at a time. There are still many people who hold that a boy can learn nothing useful in the rudiments of a mechanical trade except in the old way, spending years in a commercial shop. The owner and manager of a series of machine shops once told me I was doing a great deal of harm in my way of teaching the uses of tools. Thinking I could possibly have no motive but that of making mechanics, he said: "The only way to make a mechanic is to put him in a shop ten hours a day and let him get used to dirt and drudgery and hard work." He refused to visit my school after it was in successful operation.

Manual labor is not manual training, be the labor in a shop, on a farm, in a garden, in a kitchen, or in a brickyard. A half-time school may be a good device for earning one's bread while getting the rudiments of an education, but it is not manual training. Gymnastics and physical exercise in general appeal almost exclusively to the fundamental muscles and their brain centers and rarely to the accessories. Nothing short of manual training will reach effectively the important brain cells governing the fine motor adjustments of the muscles of the hand.

It is a matter of no little moment to decide on scientific grounds what kinds of manual work are educational and what kinds are not; in short, what kinds of manual exercises are to be introduced into a manual training school. Large groups of muscles are more easily contracted than small groups, and the fundamental muscles are more easily contracted and coordinated than the accessories. A boy ought to write only with the muscles of his arm and hand, but in his first attempts he contracts muscles all over his body, and twists out of shape even many of the muscles of his face. It requires less skill to grasp the handle of an ax, using all the muscles of the hand and arm, and chop wood, than to seize a penholder by means of two fingers and the thumb and perform the act of writing. What we commonly call unskilled labor" involves large groups of muscles, and mainly the fundamental muscles with their coarser adjustments, while "skilled labor" involves small groups, and in the main the accessory muscles with their finer adjustments. Unskilled labor, therefore, develops but few and crude motor ideas; skilled labor on the other hand develops accurate motor sensations and ideas and fine coordinations of muscular movement. The latter alone is educational. Indeed, the heaviest kind of manual labor dulls the motor sensations and makes men stolid. Human beings are not educated by being made beasts of burden.

This, again, enables us to determine what kinds of tools are to be used in a manual training school. The ax, the crowbar, and the pickax have no place in such a school; they appeal to large groups of muscles and require but crude motor coordinations. On the contrary, the jackknife, the chisel, the saw, the hammer, the jackplane, and the lathe appeal to small groups of muscles and require accurate motor ideas and delicate muscular coordinations.—Superintendent Balliet.

Strictly pedagogical methods should be employed in teaching a trade or an industry, with great economy of time and a great gain in efficiency. In a modern trade school (of which we have very few examples in the United States) the instruction is given fully and logically by experts, and all that is done by pupil or teacher is for educational rather than commercial ends. Consequently the shops of a well-equipped manual training school are well arranged for teaching trades were such desired. The admirable work done in Pratt Institute, of Brooklyn, with evening classes, well illustrates this point. It should, however, be borne in mind that the pupils of the evening classes are men, not boys, and that they are wage-earners during the day.

An interesting experiment in the direction of trade teaching along pedagogical lines and in connection with the public schools has been tried in Springfield, Mass., under the supervision of Supt. Thomas M. Balliet. I quote substantially his words. He first states very clearly the three functions of the manual training high school by day, viz: (1) To provide a general course in manual training for purely educational purposes; (2) to serve as a fitting school for higher technical schools; (3) to give technical instruction of high school grade to those aiming at positions as foremen, superintendents, and practical men who come between mechanics and engineers. Then he adds:

These should be the function of the day high school. But these schools may serve another purpose by ministering to the needs of an entirely different class of students from those of the day school. Its expensive shop equipments may be used for the purpose of giving instruction in trades to men employed during the day either as apprentices or as journeymen. These equipments, which would otherwise lie idle after the session of the day school closes, make it possible to

organize, at comparatively small expense, evening trade schools for the broader training of men already at work at their trade.

In October, 1899, when the equipment of the shops had become measurably complete, an evening trade school was organized, which has been continued every year since from October to March. The school is in session six evenings a week, from 7.15 to 10 o'clock, each class meeting two or three times a week. The first year only three departments were organized: (1) mechanical drawing, (2) machineshop practice and tool making, and (3) plumbing. During the past winter classes were conducted in the following subjects: (1) mechanical drawing, (2) machine

The "Demonstration "-Mechanic Arts High School, Boston, Mass.

shop practice and tool making. (3) plumbing, (4) wood turning and pattern making, (5) mechanics and applied mathematics, (6) electricity (lectures and laboratory work). Recognizing the fundamental character of mechanical drawing for all the mechanical trades, the students in all the other classes are encouraged, though not required, to join some class in drawing. The course in mathematics is arranged with reference to the special needs of mechanics, and includes such topics in arithmetic, algebra. geometry, and trigonometry as find a direct application in the mechanical trades. The course in e'ectricity consists of a lecture course for persons who have only a scientific interest in the subject, and of a lab

oratory course whose aim is to offer practical instruction in electrical measurements and electrical construction to persons who are employed wholly or in part at such work, or who desire to fit themselves for it.

The instruction in mechanical drawing is given by a man who has occupied important positions as draftsman in manufacturing establishments. The instructors in machine-shop practice and tool making are men who have had wide experience as mechanics and as superintendents of shops. The teacher of pattern-making had learned the trade as a young man and had practical experience in it for years. The teacher of plumbing is the plumbing inspector for the city, and is recognized as an authority in his trade. The teachers of electricity, mechanics. and mathematics are technically trained men. All of these teachers, except the teacher of plumbing and the assistant teacher in the machine shop, are employed in the day high school, and are skillful teachers. The school is under the supervision of the principal of the day high school.

The enrollment for the winter 1902-3 was 311, and the percentage of attendance was 86.8, ranging in the different classes from 81.5 in plumbing to 89.5 in pattern making. This will be recognized as a considerably higher percentage of attendance than is found in other types of evening schools. In enrolling students, when all applicants properly qualified can not be accommodated, preference was given to men already engaged at their trade, either as apprentices or as journeymen; and such men constituted the large majority of students in the school. This policy recommends the school to manufacturers and other employers of skilled labor, because it educates their men and trains them to do a higher quality of work; it also recommends the school to the workingmen, because it enables them to secure promotions and higher wages; and it wins for the school the good will of the labor unions, because it does all this without appreciably increasing the labor market and becoming a means of depressing wages.

Superintendent Balliet adds:

This is a brief account of an experiment in teaching trades at public expense: it is a feature of our public school work which has provoked but little criticism and is rapidly growing in favor, and I believe it is destined to become a permanent part-and a very important part of the school system of our city. Our expe rience has convinced me that there is no insuperable difficulty in the way of organizing an evening trade school in every well-equipped manual-training high school in the country, and I believe that this is the point from which instruction in trades at public expense can be most effectually developed with the least expenditure of money. Such evening trade schools can not only use the shop equipments of manual-training high schools, but they can have the free use of their laboratories. of their drawing room with its equipment, and of other facilities for academic instruction. No trade school, even for men who are mature and are already engaged at their trade, ought to confine its instruction to shopwork; it must not lose sight of the man in training the mechanic. Thorough courses in mechanical drawing, in mechanics, in applied physics and applied mathematics, and, if possible, in other academic studies, should be offered, and every student in the shopwork classes should be encouraged to take as many of these courses as his time and his strength will permit.

RELATION OF EDUCATION TO INDUSTRY.

These three questions are of prime importance:

1. When and how shall a boy make a wise choice of an occupation?

2. To what extent does "manual training," as gained in high schools and academies, open the doors into the trades?

3. Why are so few “"manual graduates

enrolled as mechanics? Does the

small number indicate any failure or disappointed hope?

1. The choice of an occupation is a very important matter. The theory of the ordinary manual training school assumes that the boy of 14 or 15 is unprepared to make a choice--first, because he does not know himself his mental and physical possibilities; again, because he does not know what the different trades involve: finally, he does not know what other avenues of emplo ment or occupation there are which would naturally compete in his mind with the mechanical trades.