different origin because they were found in the same passage. Iovis 27 was sometimes written for Iuppiter in ancient times and on the Iguvian tablets a passage reading, ioves patres ocres tarincris iovias very probably contains Iovia for Iuno.28

We should, however, heed the warning that etymological evidence in the case of deities is almost sure to be misleading unless it is absolutely certain and is supported by the history of the name.2

29

27 Ennius, Ann. 63.

28 Conway, Ital. Dial. no. 243; Bücheler, Umbrica, 125 (Iuvie for Ioviae); Mommsen, Unterital. Dialekte, pp. 336 ff.

29 Warde Fowler, Relig. Exper. of the Rom. People, p. 125.

Jupiter

The early peoples of Latium adored multiple forces of nature conceived as occult influences, immaterial numina incorporate, so to speak, in the objects which they moved. The Roman religion guided by its imperturbable logic refused to detach its gods from nature and to recognize for them a distinct personality. There is, however, "a certain mysterious dualism of male and female among the old Italian divinities". The early Latins recognized divine pairs and made the distinction of sex in the powers to which they performed rites. These pairs are perhaps due to conscientious care on the part of the worshippers not to pass over a deity from ignorance or to apply a wrong name. Hence, in formulae of prayer are found such expressions as, sive deus, sive dea es, sive mas, sive femina and names occurring in pairs, such as Faunus and Fauna, Cacus and Caca, Liber and Libera, Consus and Ops, Lua Saturni, Salacia Neptuni, Hora Quirini, Maia Volcani, Nerio Martis. In this list it seems that Jupiter and Juno should have a place.

Jesse Benedict Carter' in 1906 remarked that a curious characteristic of the early age is the extraordinarily limited number of goddesses. Vesta is the only one who seems to stand by herself without a male parallel. Each of the others is merely the contrasted potentiality in a pair of which the male is much more famous, and the only ones in these pairs who ever obtained a pronounced individuality did so because their cult was afterwards reinforced by some extra-Roman cult. The best illustration of this last is Juno. Dr. Carter is evidently thinking of the di selecti; for, if we consider the list of the di certi,5 we find a great number of feminine forms. Four years later he thinks that the connection between Jupiter and Juno in early Rome was not very strong, but that the connection between Janus

1 Bouché-Leclercq, Manuel des Instit. rom. pp. 460-1.

2 Warde Fowler, Rom. Fest. p. 221.

Aust, Relig. der Römer, p. 19; Wissowa, Relig. und Kult.2 pp. 22 and 26 ff. 'Carter, Relig. of Numa, p. 21.

'Pauly-Wissowa, IX, 1339-42; Daremberg et Saglio, III, 470-2.

Röm. Mitt. XXV (1910) p. 81.

and Juno was very old. To be sure, records of that period do not exist, but there are several survivals of the primitive worship which seem to indicate that Juno was originally related both to Janus and to Jupiter.

The most important evidence of the original character of the state is contained in the religious calendars or fasti, of which we have between twenty and thirty partly preserved and one almost complete. From these records and from literature we learn that the Calends of each month, when the moon was new, was sacred to Juno, and the Ides, when the moon was full, was sacred to Jupiter. Among the people of Laurentum Juno bore the title Calendaris. It is true that in the old stone calendar the Calends is not designated as her festival, but this omission is no argument against the age of the custom; for in all cases where feriae fall on the Calends, Nones, or Ides, these latter titles claim precedence and suppress the name of the festival. That indeed the association of the Calends with Juno was a very early one is further shown by the fact that she received regular sacrifice on that day from March to December. 10 As those ten months doubtless composed the earliest Roman calendar, Juno was apparently honored on the first of each month even before the calendar of Numa.

As soon as the Pontifex Minor saw the crescent moon again in the heavens he reported it to the Rex Sacrorum, who thereupon ascended with the Pontifex to the Capitoline (the seat of Jupiter) and in the Curia Calabra sacrificed to Juno. At the same time, in the Regia, sacrifice of a lamb or pig was made by the Regina Sacrorum. Then, in the same Curia, a subaltern of

7 Wissowa, Relig. und Kult. p. 2 and note 1; Warde Fowler, Hastings's Enc. of Relig. and Ethics, X, p. 820.

Macrobius, S. I, 15, 18 (quoting Varro).

• Wissowa, De feriis anni Rom. vetust. pp. xi ff. (see examples there); Pauly-Wissowa, III, 1551. Otto, op. cit. p. 213, maintains that the Calends are sacred to Juno in quite another way than the Ides to Jupiter, for the Ides are feriae and have the sign N but the Calends in the early stone calendar have no such signs. Ovid however says that the first of the year, for instance, was dies fastus, "lest from an idle beginning the whole year might prove idle". As the Romans were especially superstitious about beginnings, this is a reasonable explanation.

10 Macrobius, 1.c.

the priestly college proclaimed to the assembled people the number of days before the Nones, saying:

Dies te quinque calo, Iuno Covella.

Septem dies te calo, Iuno Covella.11

From this word calare it was believed that Calendae12 and Calabra arose. As Haliday13 says, the Ides were sacred to Jupiter perhaps because the days of the full moon provide the longest period of continuous light. No doubt his counterpart, Juno, as goddess of new light and of the crescent moon, received the honors when the moon was young. Certainly Macrobius and Lydus1 attribute this worship to the fact that she was a moondeity. The observance of the first appearance of the crescent moon by the priest is a primitive custom and is found among many savage peoples. The new moon, with promise of growth and increase, is greeted with ceremonies intended to renew and invigorate the life of man by means of sympathetic images.15

Covella is an epithet very difficult to explain. Scaliger suggested that we should read Novella instead. This was accepted by Müller-Deecke,16 who believed that the custom came from Etruria, since there it was the business of the lucomo to announce the number of days before the next nundinae must be held. Otto,17 who has tried to prove that Juno was not connected with the heavens, thinks that the proper derivation is from caulae and that she was in this phase a goddess of entrances. Döhring18 is right in rejecting this explanation, though his own theory is scarcely more plausible. He says that Covella is from a root scu- (seen in obscurus) and is a diminutive form, which was earlier Scovella. Covella is associated by most scholars,19 however, with ôλos, coelum, and cavus, by which some scholars think the heavens are indicated and some the crescent moon.

" Varro, L.L. VI, 27; Macrobius, S. I, 15, 9 f.; Fasti Praen. Jan. 1; Mommsen, Röm. Chron. p. 16, note 3; Piganiol, Les Origines de Rome, p. 104.

12 The objection to this derivation, made by Döhring, Archiv für lat. Lexikogr. XV (1907) p. 222, is met by Wissowa, Pauly-Wissowa, X, 1560. 13 History of Roman Religion, p. 98.

14 Macrobius, S. I, 15, 20; Lydus, De Mens. III, 7 and IV, 29.

15 Piganiol, 1.c.; Frazer, Golden Bough, IV3, 2, pp. 141 ff. and VIII3, p. 25. 16 Die Etrusker, II, p. 305.

17 Philol. N.F. XVIII (1905) pp. 214-5.

18 L.C.

19 Mommsen, 1.c.; Roscher, Juno u. Hera, p. 22.

Düntzer,20 asserting that if the source were cavus we should expect cavella, thinks we may suppose Cohella from cohum, meaning "heaven".21 Certainly the best explanations yet offered connect this epithet of Juno with the sky. The name Juno Covella may correspond roughly to Jupiter Caelestis.

The association of Juno with the moon and the month influenced the time of practically all her important festivals. They were as follows:

The cults of Juno Regina and Sospita were brought from Veii and Lanuvium; and, though their temples were built in Republican times, the original festivals were doubtless transferred with the deity, as were also the priests and rites. Apparently the temple of Juno Quiritis22 in the Campus Martius was the only one which did not have a special day of celebration on the Calends. This festival is placed by the Arval calendar on the Nones of October. It is noteworthy that on the Nones of July was held another important Juno festival, in honor of Juno Caprotina.23 Both Quiritis and Caprotina were forms of the cult prominent in early times at Falerii.

It is likewise interesting to note that on the Nones of October the Arval calendar records a festival to Jupiter Fulgur.24 Also the rites of Juno on the Nones of July seem to have had a close relation to those of the Poplifugia on the fifth of July. In spite of Otto's objections,25 this last named festival was doubtless

20 Philol. XVII (1861) p. 362.

21 Cohum or covum was an older form of cavum and like coelum designated the sky, Hartung, Relig. der Römer, II, p. 63. Festus, p. 34 L., says poets call the sky cohum from cavum.

22 C. I. L. 12, p. 214. L. R. Taylor, Cults of Etruria, p. 69, thinks it is tempting to place the festival on the Calends, because she says there is no evidence for the date. However, see Otto, op. cit. p. 199 (he prints as reference C.I.L. I2, p. 211 instead of p. 214).

23 Varro, L.L. VI, 18; Warde Fowler, Rom. Fest. pp. 176 ff.; Marquardt, Röm. Staatsver. III2, p. 325.

24 C.I.L. I2, p 214.

25 Otto, op. cit. p. 189.