lar order on different tablets, and so growing into a genealogy of several successive monarchs, designated by certain characters, which signify "the son of," and combining other proofs that they belong to a continuous series. But it is hardly fair upon the ordinary reader for Mr. Layard to print these lines of inscription from different slabs, which are to be considered equivalent to, and explanatory of, each other, in cuneiform characters alone. He ought to have told us in plain English or Roman letters, the names which he thus read. Even the philologist, who has paid some attention to the system, may be almost equally at a loss; as Major Rawlinson's alphabet is not applicable to the Assyrian cuneiform, and no other alphabet has as yet, we believe, been found to test the readings

on these monuments.

There is no reason why we should not assign to Assyria the same remote antiquity we claim for Egypt. The monuments of Egypt prove that she did not stand alone in civilization and power. At the earliest period we find her contending with enemies already nearly, if not fully, as powerful as herself; and amongst the spoil of Asia, and the articles of tribute brought by subdued nations from the north-east, are vases as elegant in shape, stuffs as rich in texture, and chariots as well adapted to war as her own. It is not improbable that she herself was indebted to the nations of western Asia for the introduction of arts in which they excelled, and that many things in common use were brought from the banks of the Tigris. In fact, to reject the notion of the existence of an independent kingdom in Assyria, at the very earliest period, would be almost to question whether the country were inhabited; which would be directly in opposition to the doubt may be entertained as to the dynasties and united testimony of Scripture and tradition. A the extent of the empire, but not as to its existence; that it was not peopled by mere wandering tribes appears to he proved by the frequent mention of expe

earliest monuments of Egypt and the nature of the spoil brought from the country.-Pp. 225, 226.

But even if these sullen and obstinate inscriptions refuse to yield up their secret treasures of knowledge; if we are baffled by the recondite language, owning no manifest analogy with any of the known languages, ancient or modern, of west-ditions against Naharaina, (Mesopotamia,) on the ern Asia; if we are doomed to gaze upon them in unintelligent wonder, as men did so many ages, before the days of Young and Champollion, on the sealed hieroglyphics of Egypt; if we get no It is this reciprocal light thrown upon each further than to make out barren lists of names other by the Egyptian and Assyrian monuments (curious, indeed, if confirmed by those in the which, in a broad and general way, seems the unchronologists, yet of very limited interest)-still answerable guarantee for their historic authority. we cannot but think this sudden redintegration, as Taking at its lowest the certainty of the system it were, of the great half-fabulous empire of Assy-of hieroglyphic interpretation, besides this, Egypt ria, one of the most singular adventures, so to displays to us the living and intelligible sculptures speak, of antiquarian research. Though we may in all her older buildings (which are yet much not be able, as the Chevalier Bunsen aspires to do younger than the pyramids.) These it is imposfor Egypt, to assign the place of Ninevite Assy-sible to suppose the creations of fantastic artists, ria in the history of mankind and of civilization, the records of imaginary combats, sieges, and conyet it is a surprising event to receive, on a sudden, quests. The peculiarities of dress, form, and such unanswerable evidence of her power, wealth, greatness, luxury, and skill in manufactures and arts; of the extent of her conquests, and of course in a more imperfect and indistinct manner, the character of her social life and of her religion.

Our conclusions do not differ from those of Mr. Layard, as to the vast antiquity of the Assyrian empire. The total and acknowledged ignorance of Ctesias as to the events of any reign anterior to Sardanapalus, of course greatly shakes our faith in his authentic knowledge as to the length of those reigns, and altogether as to the period of 1360 years from Ninus to Sardanapalus. We are so much of the new school as to venture some doubts, notwithstanding our own admissions, whether Ninus himself be a myth or a real personage, the impersonated tribe, or city, or empire, like Dorus and Ion, and Hellen, and the Egyptian Menes, or the actual father of a dynasty and the builder of the eapital; and to this conclusion Mr. Layard him

self seems to have come in his introduction

which, like most introductions, has clearly been the last part written. Semiramis, as we have said, has more of an historical character, though surrounded, no doubt magnified, by the haze of legend. But Mr. Layard's argument we think decisive as to the general question.

feature, so carefully and minutely preserved, must

mean to indicate real and well-known tribes brought into subjection, and yielding spoil or tribute to their Pharaonic masters; the scribes who, with a singular correspondence, both in the Egyptian and Assyrian monuments, are taking note of the number of heads presented to the conquering monarchs, must be commemorating actual victims, not amusing their kings with fictitious scenes of cold-blooded murder. The spoils are in many cases the undoubted products, the animals, the beasts and birds of foreign lands, no capricious inventions or symbolic creatures, but of a well-known shape and kind. There can be no doubt that the Egyptian annals, up to a period not yet ascertained, are thus graphically represented on the walls of the temples and cemeteries. If there flourished a great line or lines of sovereigns, long before Abraham, in the valley of the Nile, a civilized people, a peculiar religion, a potent hierarchy-why not a dynasty or dynasties, a people as far advanced in civilization on the shores of the Tigris? Nowhere should we expect to find the first mighty empires, the first great cities, so probably as in the rich agricultural districts on the shores of the Nile, the Euphrates, or Tigris. If such empires coëxisted, they would naturally be

connected by commerce, or opposed in war. | religious usage-above all in the style of art which, Throughout almost the whole of real ancient his- singularly enough, degenerates in the later period : tory, biblical as well as profane, some great this is rather to be expected, than a cause of Asiatic kingdom and some great Egyptian kingdom are striving for the mastery. Palestine and Syria are perpetually the Flanders of the war between the two continents. For a long period after the final settlement of the Israelites in Canaan, their annals are vague and fragmentary; not even a complete and continuous history of the Jews themselves, still less of the conterminous nations. During the great period of the Hebrew monarchy, that of David and Solomon, the kings of Judah may be imagined as holding the balance, perhaps keeping the peace, between the rival empires. But during all the later and more disastrous period, the Jewish kings are alternately compelled into alliances, or suffer invasion from these hostile powers. On one side Nineveh and Babylon, on the other No-amoun (Thebes) or Memphis, claim their allegiance or invade their territory. The conquest of Egypt by the Persians closed for a time the rivalry, which broke out again between the successors of Alexander; when the Antiochi and Ptolemies renewed the strife, till both were crushed by Rome. But for how many ages before this contest for supremacy had been going on, who shall presume to declare? It will surely be time to limit these ante-Mosaic or ante-Abrahamic centuries by biblical chronology, when the true and authoritative chronology of the Bible shall have been settled between the conflicting statements of the Hebrew text, as it stands at present, the Samaritan, the Septuagint, and Josephus (which last, from one passage in St. Paul, appears to have been the received system of our Saviour's time;) when there shall be a full agreement among the one hundred and twenty writers, great part of them Christian scholars and divines, some of the highest name for piety and biblical learning, whom Dr. Hales quotes as assigning their discordant dates, differing by some thousands of years, to the creation and the deluge-yet almost all these professing to build their system on the Scriptures.

That during these evolving centuries the empire of Assyria should suffer great change; that dynasty should dispossess dynasty; that the throne should be occupied by sovereigns of different descent, even of different race; that the founder or the more powerful emperor of a new dynasty should enlarge, extend, create a new suburban capital—or build a new palace, a new temple, above the ruins of the old; that like monarchs, ancient and modern, they should take a pride in surveying the works of their own hands, the monuments of their own power, wealth, and luxury-(Is not this the great Nineveh or Babylon which I have built?) all this is in the ordinary course of human affairs, more particularly in the old Eastern world. change described by Mr. Layard as envinced by the sculptures in the buildings which belong to the more ancient, and those ascribed to the later dynasty a change in dress, habits, arms, perhaps in

The

Το

wonder. The marvel is that the curious antiquarianism of man, thousands of years after, 'should be sagacious enough to detect the signs of such revolutions. At one period, far from the earliest, Assyrian art and Assyrian life appear to Egyptianize, as if the city had been subdued and occupied during some Egyptian conquest; and yet keen and practised observers, like Mr. Birch, profess to discover distinctions between genuine and native Egyptian work and that wrought in a foreign land under Egyptian influence. Such is the case with some of the curious, and, we must add, exquisitelyfinished ivories,* which are obviously Egyptian in subject and in form, but yet with some remarkable peculiarities of their own. Into these details it is impossible for us to enter, but we will briefly state the general conjectural conclusions at which Mr. Layard and Mr. Birch appear to have arrived. The great period of Egyptian influence, whether by connection, commerce, or domination, was during the dynasties from the eighteenth to the twenty-second of the Egyptian kings; a period which we may loosely indicate by saying that it would include the reign of King Solomon in Judea. this period may possibly belong those perplexing tombs in which the Egyptian ornaments are chiefly found, and which cover the remains of the NorthWestern, Central, and South-Eastern palaces of Nimroud. How long before this period reigned the builders and rulers of these long-buried palaces, seems now the great question. The far older and more perfect sculptures of these palaces clearly prove a dynasty of wide-ruling, wide-conquering sovereigns. But, while the student of Egyptian antiquities has been able to make out the names of the many nations subdued by the Egyptian arms, during the reigns of their Rhamseses-and there is a striking variety of complexion, feature, dress, arms, as well as a peculiarity in the spoils from their lands-according to Mr. Layard, in most of these Ninevite reliefs there are only two races or peoples which can be clearly discriminated; and neither of these can be assigned by any marked characteristics of form, countenance, arms, or dress, to any particular age or country. Various countries are, however, designated; cities situated by the shores of two rivers and cities on one stream; mountain cities girt with forests-and cities on plains, amid groves of palm-trees. But incomparably the most curious of those treasures which Mr. Layard has deposited in the British

*As to these ivories, there is a very interesting story. When they reached this country to every appearance they seemed about to crumble into dust. The keen eye of modern science instantly detected the cause of the decay. Boil them in a preparation of gelatine;" it is that constituent part of the ivory which has perished. It was done; and the ivories are as hard and firm as when first carved; they may last another thousand years or two. the Dean of Westminster and Professor Owen; it may The merit of this suggestion is contested, we hear, by very probably have occurred to both resourceful minds.

lar order on different tablets, and so growing into a genealogy of several successive monarchs, designated by certain characters, which signify "the son of," and combining other proofs that they belong to a continuous series. But it is hardly fair upon the ordinary reader for Mr. Layard to print these lines of inscription from different slabs, which are to be considered equivalent to, and explanatory of, each other, in cuneiform characters alone. He ought to have told us in plain English or Roman letters, the names which he thus read. Even the philologist, who has paid some attention to the system, may be almost equally at a loss; as Major Rawlinson's alphabet is not applicable to the Assyrian cuneiform, and no other alphabet has as yet, we believe, been found to test the readings

There is no reason why we should not assign to Assyria the same remote antiquity we claim for Egypt. The monuments of Egypt prove that she the earliest period we find her contending with enedid not stand alone in civilization and power. At mies already nearly, if not fully, as powerful as herself; and amongst the spoil of Asia, and the articles of tribute brought by subdued nations from the north-east, are vases as elegant in shape, stuffs as rich in texture, and chariots as well adapted to herself was indebted to the nations of western Asia war as her own. It is not improbable that she for the introduction of arts in which they excelled, and that many things in common use were brought from the banks of the Tigris. In fact, to reject the notion of the existence of an independent kingdom in Assyria, at the very earliest period, would be almost to question whether the country were inhabited; which would be directly in opposition to the But even if these sullen and obstinate inscrip- doubt may be entertained as to the dynasties and united testimony of Scripture and tradition. A tions refuse to yield up their secret treasures of the extent of the empire, but not as to its existence; knowledge; if we are baffled by the recondite lan-that it was not peopled by mere wandering tribes apguage, owning no manifest analogy with any of pears to be proved by the frequent mention of expethe known languages, ancient or modern, of west-ditions against Naharaina, (Mesopotamia,) on the ern Asia; if we are doomed to gaze upon them in earliest monuments of Egypt and the nature of the unintelligent wonder, as men did so many ages, spoil brought from the country.-Pp. 225, 226. before the days of Young and Champollion, on the sealed hieroglyphics of Egypt; if we get no further than to make out barren lists of names

on these monuments.

It is this reciprocal light thrown upon each other by the Egyptian and Assyrian monuments (curious, indeed, if confirmed by those in the which, in a broad and general way, seems the unchronologists, yet of very limited interest)-still answerable guarantee for their historic authority. we cannot but think this sudden redintegration, as Taking at its lowest the certainty of the system it were, of the great half-fabulous empire of Assy-of hieroglyphic interpretation, besides this, Egypt ria, one of the most singular adventures, so to displays to us the living and intelligible sculptures speak, of antiquarian research. Though we may in all her older buildings (which are yet much not be able, as the Chevalier Buusen aspires to do younger than the pyramids.) These it is imposfor Egypt, to assign the place of Ninevite Assy-sible to suppose the creations of fantastic artists, ria in the history of mankind and of civilization, the records of imaginary combats, sieges, and conyet it is a surprising event to receive, on a sudden, quests. The peculiarities of dress, form, and such unanswerable evidence of her power, wealth, feature, so carefully and minutely preserved, must greatness, luxury, and skill in manufactures and arts; of the extent of her conquests, and of course in a more imperfect and indistinct manner, the character of her social life and of her religion.

to indicate real and well-known tribes mean brought into subjection, and yielding spoil or tribute to their Pharaonic masters; the scribes who, with a singular correspondence, both in the Our conclusions do not differ from those of Mr. Egyptian and Assyrian monuments, are taking Layard, as to the vast antiquity of the Assyrian note of the number of heads presented to the conempire. The total and acknowledged ignorance quering monarchs, must be commemorating actual of Ctesias as to the events of any reign anterior to victims, not amusing their kings with fictitious Sardanapalus, of course greatly shakes our faith in scenes of cold-blooded murder. The spoils are his authentic knowledge as to the length of those in many cases the undoubted products, the anireigns, and altogether as to the period of 1360 mals, the beasts and birds of foreign lands, no years from Ninus to Sardanapalus. We are so capricious inventions or symbolic creatures, but There can be much of the new school as to venture some doubts, of a well-known shape and kind. notwithstanding our own admissions, whether Ni- no doubt that the Egyptian annals, up to a period nus himself be a myth or a real personage, the not yet ascertained, are thus graphically representimpersonated tribe, or city, or empire, like Dorus ed on the walls of the temples and cemeteries. If and Ion, and Hellen, and the Egyptian Menes, or there flourished a great line or lines of sovereigns, the actual father of a dynasty and the builder of the long before Abraham, in the valley of the Nile, a eapital; and to this conclusion Mr. Layard him- civilized people, a peculiar religion, a potent hieself seems to have come in his introduction-rarchy-why not a dynasty or dynasties, a people which, like most introductions, has clearly been the as far advanced in civilization on the shores of the last part written. Semiramis, as we have said, has more of an historical character, though surrounded, no doubt magnified, by the haze of legend. But Mr. Layard's argument we think decisive as to the general question.

Tigris? Nowhere should we expect to find the first mighty empires, the first great cities, so probably as in the rich agricultural districts on the shores of the Nile, the Euphrates, or Tigris. If such empires coexisted, they would naturally be

connected by commerce, or opposed in war. | religious usage-above all in the style of art which, Throughout almost the whole of real ancient his- singularly enough, degenerates in the later period : tory, biblical as well as profane, some great this is rather to be expected, than a cause of Asiatic kingdom and some great Egyptian king-wonder. The marvel is that the curious antiquadom are striving for the mastery. Palestine and rianism of man, thousands of years after, 'should be Syria are perpetually the Flanders of the war be- sagacious enough to detect the signs of such revtween the two continents. For a long period after olutions. At one period, far from the earliest, the final settlement of the Israelites in Canaan, Assyrian art and Assyrian life appear to Egyptheir annals are vague and fragmentary; not even tianize, as if the city had been subdued and occua complete and continuous history of the Jews pied during some Egyptian conquest; and yet keen themselves, still less of the conterminous nations. and practised observers, like Mr. Birch, profess to During the great period of the Hebrew monarchy, discover distinctions between genuine and native that of David and Solomon, the kings of Judah Egyptian work and that wrought in a foreign land may be imagined as holding the balance, perhaps under Egyptian influence. Such is the case with keeping the peace, between the rival empires. some of the curious, and, we must add, exquisitelyBut during all the later and more disastrous period, finished ivories,* which are obviously Egyptian in the Jewish kings are alternately compelled into ¦ subject and in form, but yet with some remarkable alliances, or suffer invasion from these hostile peculiarities of their own. Into these details it is powers. On one side Nineveh and Babylon, on the other No-amoun (Thebes) or Memphis, claim their allegiance or invade their territory. The conquest of Egypt by the Persians closed for a time the rivalry, which broke out again between the successors of Alexander; when the Antiochi and Ptolemies renewed the strife, till both were crushed by Rome. But for how many ages before this contest for supremacy had been going on, who shall presume to declare? It will surely be time to limit these ante-Mosaic or ante-Abrahamic centuries by biblical chronology, when the true and authoritative chronology of the Bible shall have been settled between the conflicting statements of the Hebrew text, as it stands at present, the Sa- | maritan, the Septuagint, and Josephus (which last, from one passage in St. Paul, appears to have been the received system of our Saviour's time;) when there shall be a full agreement among the one hundred and twenty writers, great part of them Christian scholars and divines, some of the highest name for piety and biblical learning, whom Dr. Hales quotes as assigning their discordant dates, differing by some thousands of years, to the creation and the deluge-yet almost all these professing to build their system on the Scriptures.

That during these evolving centuries the empire of Assyria should suffer great change; that dynasty should dispossess dynasty; that the throne should be occupied by sovereigns of different descent, even of different race; that the founder or the more powerful emperor of a new dynasty should enlarge, extend, create a new suburban capital-or build a new palace, a new temple, above the ruins of the old; that like monarchs, ancient and modern, they should take a pride in surveying the works of their own hands, the monuments of their own power, wealth, and luxury-(Is not this the great Nineveh or Babylon which I have built?) all this is in the ordinary course of human affairs, more particularly in the old Eastern world. change described by Mr. Layard as envinced by the sculptures in the buildings which belong to the more ancient, and those ascribed to the later dynasty—a change in dress, habits, arms, perhaps in

The

impossible for us to enter, but we will briefly state the general conjectural conclusions at which Mr. Layard and Mr. Birch appear to have arrived. The great period of Egyptian influence, whether by connection, commerce, or domination, was during the dynasties from the eighteenth to the twenty-second of the Egyptian kings; a period which we may loosely indicate by saying that it would include the reign of King Solomon in Judea. To this period may possibly belong those perplexing tombs in which the Egyptian ornaments are chiefly found, and which cover the remains of the NorthWestern, Central, and South-Eastern palaces of Nimroud. How long before this period reigned the builders and rulers of these long-buried palaces, seems now the great question. The far older and more perfect sculptures of these palaces clearly prove a dynasty of wide-ruling, wide-conquering sovereigns. But, while the student of Egyptian antiquities has been able to make out the names of the many nations subdued by the Egyptian arms, during the reigns of their Rhamseses-and there is a striking variety of complexion, feature, dress, arms, as well as a peculiarity in the spoils from their lands-according to Mr. Layard, in most of these Ninevite reliefs there are only two races or peoples which can be clearly discriminated; and neither of these can be assigned by any marked characteristics of form, countenance, arms, or dress, to any particular age or country. Various countries are, however, designated; cities situated by the shores of two rivers and cities on one stream; mountain cities girt with forests-and cities on plains, amid groves of palm-trees. But incomparably the most curious of those treasures which Mr. Layard has deposited in the British

*As to these ivories, there is a very interesting story. When they reached this country to every appearance they seemed about to crumble into dust. The keen eye of modern science instantly detected the cause of the decay. "Boil them in a preparation of gelatine;" it is that constituent part of the ivory which has perished. It was done; and the ivories are as hard and firm as when first carved; they may last another thousand years or two. the Dean of Westminster and Professor Owen; it may The merit of this suggestion is contested, we hear, by very probably have occurred to both resourceful minds.

lar order on different tablets, and so growing into There is no reason why we should not assign to

a genealogy of several successive monarchs, designated by certain characters, which signify "the son of," and combining other proofs that they belong to a continuous series. But it is hardly fair upon the ordinary reader for Mr. Layard to print these lines of inscription from different slabs, which are to be considered equivalent to, and explanatory of, each other, in cuneiform characters alone. He ought to have told us in plain English or Roman letters, the names which he thus read. Even the philologist, who has paid some attention to the system, may be almost equally at a loss; as Major Rawlinson's alphabet is not applicable to the Assyrian cuneiform, and no other alphabet has as yet, we believe, been found to test the readings

on these monuments.

Assyria the same remote antiquity we claim for Egypt. The monuments of Egypt prove that she did not stand alone in civilization and power. At the earliest period we find her contending with enemies already nearly, if not fully, as powerful as herself; and amongst the spoil of Asia, and the articles of tribute brought by subdued nations from the north-east, are vases as elegant in shape, stuffs as rich in texture, and chariots as well adapted to herself was indebted to the nations of western Asia war as her own. It is not improbable that she for the introduction of arts in which they excelled, and that many things in common use were brought from the banks of the Tigris. In fact, to reject the notion of the existence of an independent kingdom in Assyria, at the very earliest period, would be almost to question whether the country were inhabited; which would be directly in opposition to the doubt may be entertained as to the dynasties and united testimony of Scripture and tradition. A the extent of the empire, but not as to its existence; that it was not peopled by mere wandering tribes appears to be proved by the frequent mention of expe

But even if these sullen and obstinate inscriptions refuse to yield up their secret treasures of knowledge; if we are baffled by the recondite language, owning no manifest analogy with any of the known languages, ancient or modern, of west-ditions against Naharaina, (Mesopotamia,) on the ern Asia; if we are doomed to gaze upon them in unintelligent wonder, as men did so many ages, before the days of Young and Champollion, on the sealed hieroglyphics of Egypt; if we get no further than to make out barren lists of names

earliest monuments of Egypt and the nature of the spoil brought from the country.-Pp. 225, 226.

It is this reciprocal light thrown upon each other by the Egyptian and Assyrian monuments (curious, indeed, if confirmed by those in the which, in a broad and general way, seems the unchronologists, yet of very limited interest)-still answerable guarantee for their historic authority. Taking at its lowest the certainty of the system we cannot but think this sudden redintegration, as it were, of the great half-fabulous empire of Assy- of hieroglyphic interpretation, besides this, Egypt ria, one of the most singular adventures, so to displays to us the living and intelligible sculptures in all her older buildings (which are yet much speak, of antiquarian research. Though we may not be able, as the Chevalier Buusen aspires to do younger than the pyramids.) These it is imposfor Egypt, to assign the place of Ninevite Assy-sible to suppose the creations of fantastic artists, ria in the history of mankind and of civilization, the records of imaginary combats, sieges, and conyet it is a surprising event to receive, on a sudden, quests. The peculiarities of dress, form, and such unanswerable evidence of her power, wealth, feature, so carefully and minutely preserved, must to indicate real and well-known tribes greatness, luxury, and skill in manufactures and mean arts; of the extent of her conquests, and of course brought into subjection, and yielding spoil or the scribes in a more imperfect and indistinct manner, the tribute to their Pharaonic masters; character of her social life and of her religion. who, with a singular correspondence, both in the Our conclusions do not differ from those of Mr. Egyptian and Assyrian monuments, are taking Layard, as to the vast antiquity of the Assyrian note of the number of heads presented to the conempire. The total and acknowledged ignorance quering monarchs, must be commemorating actual of Ctesias as to the events of any reign anterior to victims, not amusing their kings with fictitious The spoils are Sardanapalus, of course greatly shakes our faith in scenes of cold-blooded murder. his authentic knowledge as to the length of those in many cases the undoubted products, the anireigns, and altogether as to the period of 1360 mals, the beasts and birds of foreign lands, no years from Ninus to Sardanapalus. We are so capricious inventions or symbolic creatures, but There can be much of the new school as to venture some doubts, of a well-known shape and kind. notwithstanding our own admissions, whether Ni-no doubt that the Egyptian annals, up to a period nus himself be a myth or a real personage, the not yet ascertained, are thus graphically representimpersonated tribe, or city, or empire, like Dorus ed on the walls of the temples and cemeteries. If and Ion, and Hellen, and the Egyptian Menes, or there flourished a great line or lines of sovereigns, the actual father of a dynasty and the builder of the long before Abraham, in the valley of the Nile, a eapital; and to this conclusion Mr. Layard him- civilized people, a peculiar religion, a potent hieself seems to have come in his introduction-rarchy-why not a dynasty or dynasties, a people which, like most introductions, has clearly been the last part written. Semiramis, as we have said, has more of an historical character, though surrounded, no doubt magnified, by the haze of legend. But Mr. Layard's argument we think decisive as to the general question.

as far advanced in civilization on the shores of the Tigris? Nowhere should we expect to find the first mighty empires, the first great cities, so probably as in the rich agricultural districts on the shores of the Nile, the Euphrates, or Tigris. If such empires coëxisted, they would naturally be