Froebel, Miss Montessori emphasizes sense training, but she does it in a more direct and elaborate way than Froebel. Out of Seguin's apparatus she has devised a comprehensive, scientific scheme for sense training. While Froebel's scheme was much broader and called for a more creative use of material by the children, Miss Montessori's plans are more closely adapted to sense discrimination. It is fundamental in the kindergarten philosophy as now generally interpreted, that sense training be made incidental to the constructive and imaginative activities in which the children are pursuing larger ends than the mere arrangement or knowledge of forms and colors. Of the two systems the Froebelian makes a far stronger appeal to the constructive imagination and genius of the child.

In physical education Doctor Holmes says that the two systems agree in practically the same way. "Both affirm the need of free bodily activity, for rhythmic exercises, and for the development of muscular control; but, whereas the kindergarten seeks much of this through group games with an imaginative or social content, the Montessori scheme places the emphasis on special exercises designed to give formal training in separate physical functions." In the social applications of these physical functions a radical difference between the two systems is noticeable. The games of the kindergarten are usually imaginative, often decidedly symbolic, and the children of the group take part in unison in representing some typical social situation. But in the Montessori system the children often as individuals take part in real social enterprises such as serving dinner, cleaning the room, caring for animals, making garden, etc. Although the kindergarten does not exclude such real enterprises, it does not emphasize nor generally in this country practise them. On the other hand, Miss Montessori speaks in rather a derogatory way of games and foolish stories and evidently does not see the great possibilities of imaginative and creative activity.

Doctor Montessori finds the data for the new pedagogy in anthropology and experimental psychology. But as she sees the need of fitting the child for society, she is interested not only in the biological but also in the social child. She approaches her problem from the stand-point of the

physician who has had careful pedagogic training and a valuable practical experience in educating defectives, but who still remains the observant physician skilfully diagnosing each case according to its individual peculiarities as they present themselves before her. What she is particularly interested in, therefore, might well be called pedagogic hygiene, or the development of the child along lines that are educationally healthful. These educational health lines she thinks are to be found only by observing the free, spontaneous activity of the child, as if, with Rousseau, she felt nature to be the only safe guide. Theoretically she does not recognize the difficulty of discriminating between that which is "natural" and that which is due to social influences, even in the very young; but practically she does in the way in which she would restrict the child from doing that which offends or annoys, or which tends toward rough or ill-bred acts, or that which is useless or dangerous.

Every manifestation, however, having a useful scope, she would permit; for "We cannot know the consequences of suffocating a spontaneous action at the time when the child is just beginning to be active: perhaps we suffocate life itself." Aside from the self-development ("auto-education") that there is in such "liberty," it furnishes valuable information to the trained observer of how best to provide for the educational needs of the child. There is a valuable idea here; for teachers often fail to grasp what their pupils are really thinking, feeling, and striving to do. They often fail because of their inability to see things from the viewpoint of the child. Hence methods which tend to bring teacher and pupil closer together in their understanding of each other are exceedingly valuable. It is also true that the "liberty" fostered in the Montessori schools, under a carefully trained teacher whose practical common sense and quick sympathies are able to turn the current of discipline in a direction which avoids strain and resistance, develops true teaching power as no mere restrictive measures can do. The child has a right to be active, to explore his environment, to develop his inner resources through creative effort, and he also needs careful training of his senses as a foundation for active and accurate learning. In these two points Doctor Montessori agrees with Froebel.

But it is only the well-trained, well-qualified teacher who, when she is dealing with a number of children at the same time, can do this without infringing somewhat on the "liberty" that Doctor Montessori has in mind.

In fact, one of the most serious difficulties to encounter in a general effort to introduce the Montessori methods would be apt to lie along the line of securing competent teachers or directresses for effective work. An ideal teacher for such methods must have a background of culture, a good working knowledge of general psychology, power to observe with scientific accuracy yet with sympathetic insight, she must know from experience the right moment to intervene with help and suggestion, she must be able to present simply and clearly all the materials and lessons, she must have such a clear idea of what "liberty means that she can create its atmosphere in her room, she must be able to prevent the children from superficial playing with the didactic material used in their education, and she must be able to forestall disorderly habits and to foster habits of care and order. While these are exceedingly desirable qualities for teachers everywhere, they are absolutely essential to success under these new methods.

APPLICATION IN AMERICA.-Aside from the difficulty of applying the Montessori methods to the teaching of large groups at one time, and the difficulty of securing the necessary number of sufficiently qualified teachers, critics see some danger in the system of over-emphasis of the material side of the child's education at the expense of the spiritual. Madame Montessori has no place in her scheme for appealing to the imagination of the child. Training the child to social duties, to self help, and to quick practical results appeals more to her than do any of the spiritual hungers which are so manifest in the young child. Not that the spiritual nature is absolutely neglected in her educational scheme, but that it receives attention almost entirely along the line of duties to be performed rather than in spiritual communion and fellowship to be enjoyed. It seems remarkable that such a close observer of child-life should have failed to read deeply into this side of child-nature. But this, too, may be the result of the way she entered the field of education.

Doctor Holmes sums up the possibilities of applying her methods in America under the following statements: Our people are not as homogeneous as are the people of Italy. Temperamentally we are less responsive to sense impressions, but we have more imagination and a greater fund of nervous energy with less docility. We have more initiative and more power of invention. Our children would be apt to be freer and under less restraint in the handling of the material. They would be apt to take some of the steps provided by the didactic material more quickly and, if left to themselves, to omit some of the steps altogether. But this material should make a strong appeal to interest and should develop attention and concentration because of the spontaneous nature of the method used with it and the greater freedom of choice permitted by the method-each child being freely permitted to choose the material he desires to work with. Our shorter hours and longer vacations would not be, however, so favorable to the best workings of the system. We also have already achieved many of the things for which Doctor Montessori has been striving in Italy. "Personally," Doctor Holmes says, "I should like to see the kindergarten and first primary grade as they now are reconstructed according to her principles, using her materials, but keeping the morning circle and the story, many of the songs and games, and some of the occupations, especially the clay.'

Continuation Schools.

Wisconsin's new school law (referred to in last year's "Annals") embodies a well-defined effort to train all the boys and girls of the State into skill in at least one occupation. The proper working out of this law should do away with the unskilled labor which is so unprofitable to the individual and such a poor thing for the State. The law requires the industrial training of all between the ages of 14 and 16 in "continuation schools" to be supported partly by local taxation and partly by State aid. A State Board of Industrial Education has been provided, and in every town of 5000 or more there must be provision made for industrial education. In smaller places there may be a local

board of industrial education, composed of the superintendent of schools and 4 members appointed by the school board of the place, 2 of these members to be employers and 2 of them skilled laborers, to "maintain industrial, continuation, and evening schools." The petition of 25 persons qualified to attend is all that is necessary to secure the establishment of any special type of continuation work in these schools.

The German and Swiss laws are followed in requiring every employer of minors between 14 and 16 years of age to allow them 5 of the 48 hours of labor each week for instruction, and this instruction must be carried on for at least 6 months in the year. This time must be allowed without any decrease in wages. The course of study "must include English, citizenship, sanitation, hygiene, and the use of safety devices, and such other branches as the State superintendent and the State Board of Industrial Education shall approve." Valuable provisions are also made for apprentices under 18 whose work may not exceed 55 hours a week, 5 hours of which must be allowed the apprentice for instruction in the local industrial school or in a manner approved by the local or State boards of industrial education. Besides, the indenture must contain an agreement that the employer will teach the apprentice the whole trade as it is carried on in the shop where he is indentured, and the agreement must also specify the amount of time to be spent at each process and at each machine.

THE TESTING OF THE SHOP.-There are two important and perfectly natural results of the form of continuation school work in which students spend part of their time in the shop doing real work under actual economic conditions. These are made clear in a recent report of the workings of this coöperative plan as it is carried on by the University of Cincinnati. Dean Schneider, who was a pioneer in this work in America, shows in this report that not only does the shop quickly detect the weak points in the student's character and development, but it also shows up many of the defects in the teaching he is receiving. At least this is true in so far as it has a bearing upon the practical testing which he will receive when he takes his place in the field of productive labor. "We learned the first year," he says,