We do not know what their proper ratios are, however. . . . We do not know whether the step from a barely legible handwriting up to a good plain hand is equal to, less than, or greater than, the step from a good plain hand to a perfect copper-plate writing; much less could we put the differences in terms of an exact ratio." But differences in relative merit can be turned into precise differences of amount. Take equality of steps of difference, which is the simplest case. We may safely say that two differences are equal which are equally often noted. "If, for example, we had four samples, 1, 2, 3, and 4, of English writing, such that 80 per cent of an expert group said that I was better than 2, whereas 20 per cent said that 2 was better than I, and 80 per cent said 3 was better than 4, and 20 per cent that 4 was better than 3; then, in a very important, and, with certain limitations, true sense, we can say that the difference between 1 and 2 is equal to the difference between 3 and 4, because it is equally often noticed by equally competent judges." This method was first used, rather roughly, by Sir Francis Galton and has been used by Professor Cattell and others at Columbia; and it is used in many fields of human life, apart from education.

The last point in a valid scale of measurements, the absolute zero, is important because "A person cannot think accurately or wisely about any quantity until he has referred it to an absolute zero on some scale." And such zeros can be got, at least approximately. "For example, if we define the zero ability in spelling as the ability to spell a word like 'go' or 'so,' we shall not be far astray, for, if a child has reached a point where he can be measured at all in respect to spelling and is not able to spell these words, he is approximately at just not any ability at all in spelling." If a pupil knew that "ja" in German meant yes," but did not know that nein" meant no," he would be so close to the zero point in his knowledge of German that our error would be slight. "If we get scale points defined, and their distances defined, and establish an absolute zero, there is no further difficulty in constructing a scale for achievements of human nature. Such scales have every logical qualification that any of the scales for physical measurement have."

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Doctor Thorndike admits that he chose for his illustrations the simpler and easier cases, but maintains that the arguments would apply equally well to the sense of evidence in history, excellence of judgment in affairs, devotion to the common good, or any quality, no matter how complex, that one may take." He also refers to two or three objections to such educational measuring. First, the objection "All this is unnecessary; the good old adjectives are enough for educational work," he answers by saying that they probably are "for the kind of work that the person who makes this objection usually wishes to do." Second, the stronger objection, that the common-sense judgment of a first-rate teacher without these units and scales is better than the action of the stupid or incompetent person would be with them, he answers by saying, "It is precisely the work of science to get good work done by those of us who are rather mediocre." Third, the objection that "The personal, spiritual work of education-the direct human influence that the pupil may get from the teacher-is not in the domain of exact science," he says is no valid objection; for "Mothers do not love their babies less who weigh them," and "We do not serve our country less faithfully because we take its census, survey its coast line, or compute its resources."

These two articles are noted at some length to show the interest in the subject, to suggest methods of approach in its solution, and to indicate the probable difficulty of securing satisfactory units and scales of measurement. If such can be worked out and applied in a way that will assure better results, it will do much toward convincing the honest critics of the schools of the real value of the work being done, as well as toward placing teaching more firmly upon a professional basis.

DEPARTMENTAL TEACHING.-Some hitherto strong advocates of departmental teaching are beginning to wonder whether, after all, such a plan does not foster responsibility for subjects rather than responsibility for pupils-whether, in the anxiety to promote knowledge, the more important thing, the child with its individual needs, is not left without any one upon whom rests a sense of special responsibility for its welfare. If this shall become apparent, the

schools where the departmental plan prevails will no doubt swing back to a plan of organization and work that fosters care for the more important things in the child's education.

On this subject of specialization Chancellor W. H. Payne, of the University of Nashville, has this to say: "As the school proposes to train men and women rather than grammarians and logicians, it is of the first importance that those who teach should be men and women in this catholic and wholesome sense. I feel sure that my words will not be misconstrued when I say that a teacher's usefulness diminishes in proportion as he sinks into a mere specialist, and that the primary quality of an instructor is breadth of intellectual vision and of scholarly attainment."

BEST AGE TO ENTER SCHOOL.-Doctor Leonard P. Ayres, of the Russell Sage Foundation, published an article in Education for February, embodying the results of his recent investigations of the relation between the age of entering school and subsequent progress. As the answer to the question "What is the best age at which to send a child to school?" is of interest to parents and teachers, a brief summary of the conclusions reached by Doctor Ayres follows:

The teacher has almost invariably held that the best entering age is relatively low; while the physician, who is looking at the matter from a different stand-point, places it relatively high. There has been a great deal of discussion of the matter, and Inspector W. H. Winch recently made an important contribution toward its solution by an investigation in England, the results of which have been published in a monograph entitled "When should a Child begin School?" But the English child is usually entered in school at the age of 3 or 4, and Mr. Winch's main inquiry was as to whether or not this practice produces beneficial results; hence his conclusions, although favorable to early entrance, are of no great service here where most children enter at 5 or 6 and under conditions in home and school that are apt to be different from those in England.

Doctor Ayres' conclusions are based on three separate studies of the school histories of pupils who had covered the entire work of the elementary grades, entering in the first grade and continuing until graduated for entrance to the

higher schools. The first study was of some 25,000 pupils in the schools of New York City in 1908. The second included all the eighth grade (graduating) pupils of New York in 1909, some 16,000 in all. The third was a study of the entire membership of eighth grades (graduating) of 29 cities and was made at the close of the school year 1910-II.

The results of these investigations, Doctor Ayres claims, expose the fallacy of the common assertion that the child entering late easily catches up with the one who begins early"; although he admits that the per cent of slow (retarded) pupils is greatest among those entering at a relatively low age and the most rapid progress is among those entering at advanced ages. His claim, however, is that from his present viewpoint "the best entering age is the one that results in a large proportion of normal pupils, combined with the most equal balance between the rapid and the slow groups." His statistics show the best results in these respects from those entering at six, as 52 per cent of such pupils made normal progress, 27 per cent rapid progress, and 21 per cent slow progress.

Keeping in mind the fact that these investigations considered only the time element under our more or less arbitrary systems of promotion, and did not enter into the question of what might be true if the child's progress were dependent only upon his capacity, the following conclusions throw considerable light upon the relation between entering age and subsequent progress under existing systems and conditions: 1. Children entering at advanced ages subsequently make more rapid progress than those who enter younger, but this greater progress is not sufficient to enable them to overtake those who entered younger. 2. The entering age of 6 is the one resulting in the largest proportion of pupils making normal progress and finishing at normal age; and it is also the entering age that preserves the best balance between the rapid and slow groups of the school. 3. It is also the age that preserves the most homogeneous group judged on the basis of subsequent progress.

SCHOOL ALL-THE-YEAR.-The movement for keeping schools open during the entire year is beginning to take a firm hold, especially in the higher institutions. According to Education for November, the Harvard Engineering

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School has recently decided to have no summer vacation. The students work from 8 to 10 hours a day, and the total vacations in a year amount to about four weeks, the time being chiefly at Christmas and in the spring. The summer term begins June 22 and closes September 22. A number of other universities follow a somewhat similar plan. The University of Chicago has for some years maintained a summer term having equal weight with the three other quarters of the year. Even in the elementary school the plan has made some headway, particularly in the large cities. Cleveland, Ohio, formerly had an all-year schedule which included the summer term as one of four quarters, and a modified form of the Cleveland plan is in use in Newark, N. J., where it is being gradually extended from year to year. In the New York City schools, where the problem of sufficient school accommodations is a serious one, the authorities recently had under consideration an all-year plan which will, it is claimed, take care of practically all the children without recourse to part time. An interesting indication of the attitude of students themselves toward the all-year plan is afforded by the new Central Commercial and Manual Training High School at Newark. Thirty per cent of the pupils of this school voted in favor of continuing the school throughout the summer."

Among the advantages claimed for the all-year plan for public schools are: (a) The children are healthier and happier in school than on the streets. (b) The children obliged to leave school as soon as possible can by this means advance farther than at present. (c) Backward pupils are given an opportunity to make up back work. (d) In higher institutions it helps to meet the nation-wide demand for efficiency, not only on the part of those who must get such efficiency through continuation school work but also on the part of those who are competent to make more than ordinary preparation for their life work.

COURSES OF STUDY.-The Commissioner of Education for the State of New York, the late Doctor Andrew S. Draper, in a recent address took the broad ground that the schools must give the public what it wants and needs, regardless of the views of doctrinaires. Because of his extended public service, the words of Doctor Draper deserve