must probably be placed the ossiferous beds, at the top of the river reach above Talohmhor (Keng-yua in map), yellowish sands pebbly at top and passing up into rather soft conglomeratic sandstone containing bones, both mammalian and chelonian, shark's teeth and vertebræ, fossil-wood and rolled fragments of oysters and other shells.

A small but instructive section is also seen of these beds in the Myouk Naweng, a little below Thambyagon (Tham-bya-ga-gon), where pale silty shales are seen supporting a great thickness of rusty incoherent sand traversed by thin layers of shale and a coarse quartzose conglomerate with clay galls and cavernous hollows incrusted with a layer of the brown hæmatite, as seen in some sandy beds of the upper division (a). In this conglomerate I found mammalian bones, shark's teeth, and a small log of fossil-wood about two feet long of very similar character, though less completely mineralized than that found so abundantly in bed a. No other fossils were discernible here, nor, as a rule, throughout this division, though towards its base, sandstones come in containing marine shells and corals, though neither plentifully nor well preserved. These marine beds, however, are naturally more connected with the great group which follows immediately below the present, and which nowhere contains the fossil-wood so characteristic of the present group.

It only remains to add a few words on the very close restriction to the eastward of fossil wood after leaving the area of the fossil-wood group. Nowhere within the area occupied by this group is fossil wood, in pieces of the largest dimensions, more liberally distributed than along the eastern margin of the deposit along which it is everywhere found abundantly, but directly the boundary of the group is passed there is an almost complete absence of fossil wood, even in moderate sized pieces. A very close and careful search in some of the larger nullas may result in finding a piece here and there for some few miles from the boundary, but that is all, and the question at once presents itself,-has this fossil-wood sand extended formerly across the ranges to the eastward and to the Sittang Valley, or was its extension in that direction limited by a boundary somewhat corresponding in its general direction with the present boundary of the group? Without any detailed knowledge of the extent of the group on the eastern side of the Pegu range, we know the single fact that this fossil-wood group occurs in the Sittang Valley, and this and the presumed conformity of it with the lower group which constitutes the bulk of the intervening ranges of hills, would strongly lead us to regard the group as having once stretched uninterruptedly from the valley of the Irawadi across that of the Sittang, or over the entire country bounded to west and east, respectively, by the Arakan and Poung Loung chains. That this must have been the case with the great bulk of miocene rocks so largely developed in this part of the Irawadi Valley is certain, but one argument, though a negative one, is, I think, sufficient to make us pause before accepting the idea of a continuous extension of the fossil-wood bed over the same area as those of the group below it. This argument is the absence which I have alluded to of fossil wood for a distance not far short of 50 miles, that is, throughout the entire breadth of country occupied by the precipitous hills and tortuous streams of the Pegu range. When we reflect on the large size of some of the silicified trunks which may be said to strew the country along the eastern boundary of this group in Eastern Prome, and the abrupt cessation of any save the veriest traces thereof, and these but for a short distance from the boundary, and consider also the imperishable character of much of this fossil wood as evinced by its abundance in the hard and well worn gravels of the Irawadi Valley, we are irresistibly led to question the former extension of this fossil-wood bed across belt of country wherein it has left no traces. The evidence is about as forcible as negative evidence can be. Additional weight is also given to it by the fact, that its admission presents no difficulties, but quite harmonises with the process which the geological history of the district seems to indicate as having occurred. We have only to suppose that the deposition of the vast series of miocene rocks developed in Pegu proceeded uniformly (during, possibly, a synchronous elevation, in a gradual manner, of the ocean bed) till the entire series, save the topmost members, had been deposited. Lacustrine conditions we may now presume to have supervened over portions at least of so large an area, and the elevation of the Pegu range of hills commencing about this time would cause the first land to appear on a low belt of country occupying in its general arrangement the present line of the Pegu range. In other words, the deposition of the uppermost beds of the group and notably of the fossil-wood sands would be arrested along a line of country not greatly differing from the present boundary of the group. The elevation of the Pegu range and its corresponding disturbance of the adjoining strata certainly continued

a

down to a period subsequent to the final deposition of the fossil-wood group, though from the mineral character of the upper beds, any movements they have been subjected to are with difficulty determined, and these movements may have, to some extent, interfered with the effect of a coup d'œil, but from several points of elevated ground beyond the area of the fossil-wood beds, I have been struck by the manner in which those beds were spread out; on a lower level, in a fashion strongly suggestive of their accumulation under lacustrine conditions along a stretch of elevated country almost coincident with the present boundary. This is notably the case at the extreme north of the district near the British boundary above Teybin and Bilugon, and is also to be remarked elsewhere, though the forest is so dense that it is rarely one is able to get a glimpse of any large extent of country. Had it been otherwise than here supposed, it would be extremely hard to understand how the imperishable testimony of fossil-wood logs and fragments had been so completely removed from the hilly tract, where as a matter of fact they are wanting. They are certainly the hardest bodies met with, and having held their own among the quartzose rocks which comprise the bulk of the Irawadi gravels, must, a fortiori, have no less successfully withstood the destructive action of denudation amidst the softer miocene beds which alone are met with in the Pegu ranges. I need not, however, dilate more on this subject, which will be readily enough cleared up when the geology of those regions above the present British frontier comes to be carefully examined into which these fossil woods extend, and wherein they seem to be more largely developed than within British territory.

MINERAL PRODUCE OF INDIA.

Towards the close of the year 1868, I solicited from the Commissioner of Kumaon (and some other officers) information as to the quantity and value of the minerals raised and brought to market within their jurisdiction. Such local operations, where minerals are raised solely for local use, and in reality are never exported, or, only in very small quantities, even transported from one district to another, taken separately, are of small importance, but when aggregated for the country at large, they represent an amount and value which must be very considerable. And these small local mining operations can only become known by the assistance of the local officers. To Colonel H. Ramsay, C. B., Commissioner of Kumaon, I am indebted for the returns now given for Kumaon and Gurhwal. The information has been collected, under his orders, by Mr. Lawder, Civil Divisional Engineer, Kumaon. Mr. Lawder was for several years one of the office staff of the Geological Survey, and possessed, therefore, a general knowledge of the subject referred to him, and has evidently devoted himself with zeal to the collection and preparation of information.

I was, I confess, surprised at the quantities stated to be raised and the extent of the mineral industry. Viewed merely as a source of employment of labour, these returns show the equivalent of the continuous labour during every day in the year of no less than 154 persons, and yet the effect is scarcely felt beyond the narrow limits of the province itself, excepting in so far as this local supply obviates the necessity for imports of materials from elsewhere. MINERALOGICAL STATISTICS OF KUMAON DIVISION, collected under instructions from THE COMMISSIONER, COLONEL H. RAMSAY, C. B., by A. W. LAWDER, ESQ., Civil Divisional Engineer.

My endeavours to collect reliable memoranda of the mineral resources of Kumaon have not been so successful in their result as I could have wished. The entire absence of reliable native information, and the general unwillingness exhibited by the inhabitants to speak at all on the matter, arising from the fear that any knowledge they might communicate would perhaps eventually be the cause of increased rental demand or of the appropriation by the Government of the land in which the minerals occurred, have presented many difficulties. The information obtained from the Bhoteeas was given with great reluctance.

Owing also to my having but little surplus time to devote to the full elucidation of the subject, the memoranda supplied here are doubtless somewhat imperfect and incomplete; my duties, although carrying me to all parts of the Kumaon district, confine me (with some exceptions) more particularly to the roads, and I have probably repeatedly passed by old mines, or places rich in minerals, in utter ignorance as to their existence, not to mention other places remote from any frequented thoroughfare.

In the following notes I am indebted to reports already published for much information. The principal economic products in the Kumaon Division are the following: gold; copper; lead; iron; arsenic; sulphur; alum; lignite; bitumen; limestones; flags; slates, &c., &e.

DETAIL OF LOCALITIES.

Kumaon District.

COPPER. Ores of this metal are found at Rai in Gungoli, Síra Barabísí, Kharai, Kemokhét (each bank of Luddya river), Geewar, &c., &c.

Rai. This mine is the principal one in the Puttí. The ore is chiefly pyrites, and occurs in a matrix of steatitic and talcose schist. I visited these mines in the winter of 1868-69, and found the mines closed up by a landslip, and the entrances full of water. The ore is extracted by means of drifts slightly inclining upwards to allow for drainage, as appears to be the mode most generally adopted throughout the hills. A specimen of ore which I found on the spot seemed rich. I also discovered slight traces of copper pyrites in quartzite near Gunai in Athagaon Puttí.

Síra Barabísí.-Síra is noted for its copper mine. Dolomitic and talcose rocks form the gangue. The ore is a mixture of copper and iron pyrites.

Kharai.-Goul is the principal mine. The ore is worked in the same manner as at Rai. Steatite and limestone are the neighbouring rocks, the former being the matrix principally. Kemokhét.-Copper is found in small quantity on the east bank of the Luddya river in Kali Kumaon. I have seen no specimen of the ore.

Geewar.-There is a small mine of copper in this Puttí.

At Gurung and Chinkakolly there are mines which have been closed for some time; also at Beler and Shore.

IRON.-Iron is found in Dhuniakote, Agar, Geewar, Kutolí, Ramgarh, Tulli Rao, Chowgurka, &c., &c.

Dhuniakote.-There are the remains of some mines or burrows just opposite the staging bungalow on the left bank of the Khyrna river. The ore is hæmatite, occurring in irregular masses in quartzite. The rocks in the neighbourhood are more or less impregnated with oxide of iron. These mines are now unused.

There is also a mine south of Semulkha in this Puttí, and another in Utehakote, both now unworked.

Agar. This Puttí is very rich in iron ore, almost every village having its mine. The ore seems to be a brown hæmatite. It occurs here generally in beds or clefts, and sometimes in irregular masses. The rocks in the vicinity are silicious. Only a few of these mines are now worked to any extent.

Gee war.-Iron occurs in quantity in the neighbourhood of the villages Khetsari, Maelchour, Tilwara, Simulk hét, Gudí, and Burlgaon. I can give no opinion as to the kind of ore, having no specimens.

Kutolí.-At Suyalgurh there is some iron ore which is not at present worked to any extent.

Ramgurh.-There are several mines in this Puttí, some largely worked.

Munglalékh. This mine in Tulli Rao Putti is highly esteemed for the quality of its ore, which is raised in quantity.

Chaugurka.-The ores of iron are plentiful in this Puttí, and are worked in some At Jhirratolí in Darún the ore is magnetic.

places.

Dechouree and Khúrpatal.-There is not, I believe, any ore, being at present worked by the Kumaon Ironworks Company.

GRAPHITE. This mineral crops out at Kaleemut hill to the north of Almorah in the Jagésur range, and on the spur of Baninee Devee, facing Almorah on the Lo hughat road.

Gurhwal District.

GOLD: Sona River. This stream rises in the lower ranges of hills, and joins the Ramgunga river in Puttí Dhún. Its sands yield gold, and the bed of the Ramgunga below the junction is auriferous. The washing is not very profitable, scarcely averaging 4 annas a day to each workman.

Taluka Chandí.-The sands of the Ganges running through Chandí contain gold, but the profit arising from the washing is not greater than in the Sona river.

COPPER: Dewalgurh.-The Dhanpur and Dhobrí mines yielded largely in former times, but of late years operations have not been so vigorously carried on, owing to the intricacy of the workings, and the idea prevailing among the miners that very little ore remains in the mines. The ores are principally copper pyrites, and grey or vitreous copper ore, with the red oxide and green carbonate in smaller quantities. The matrix is calcareous. Galena is associated with the copper ore.

Nagpur. There are several mines here none of which appear to be at present worked. LEAD: Dhanpur; Tacheeda.-These mines do not seem to be extensively carried The ore is galena, and the matrix principally of silex, with varying proportions of felspar and calcspar.

on.

There are some lead mines at Ghertee in the snowy range between Milum and Niti which have been long since deserted, also at Rallum, Bainskum on banks of the Goree river, and Baidlee Baghir.

IRON: Tulli Chand poor. This ore is probably a hæmatite with a little magnetic iron. It has a slight repelling action upon the needle.

Tullí Kaliphat.-This specimen resembles specular iron ore.

Mulli Dussolí.-The specimens are highly magnetic and rich in ore.

Tulla Chandpur, Rajbúnga.-This hæmatite ore is largely worked.

Nagpur. This ore gives no definite result with the ordinary rough tests. It may possibly be a carbonate of iron.

Lohba. Here a rich hæmatite is raised in quantity.

Mulla Nagpúr.-The ore is most probably hæmatite.

Painu. This ore is brittle and hard, and possesses the iron black colour and metallic lustre of magnetic iron, but the specimens of it failed to affect the compass in the manner characteristic of that ore. It may possibly on analysis be found to contain manganese, and if so, it will be an interesting mineralogical discovery.

Iriakote. It is difficult to say what form of ore this is. Its streak fails to convey a definite idea of its composition. It would appear to be an hydrous form of sesquioxide of iron. Pokrí.-These mines have been reported on by several officers.

SULPHUR.-This mineral is found both in Kumaon and Gurhwal. In the former district at Moonsyaree, in the northern parts of the district, and there are also some sulphureous springs, as that at Nynee Tal. In Gurhwal it is found in the range of hills to the north of the Pindur river within a couple of marches of Nundpriag; also at Mulla Nagpúr and Mulli Dussolí, but is not now collected to any extent.

ARSENIC.-Yellow arsenic (Hurital) is found in the northern parts of the district near Moonsyaree. Only small quantities are brought down to the Bagésur Fair by the Bhooteas.

LIGNITE.-Indications of lignite appear near Ranee bagh, close to Huldwani, and in the streams of the sub-Himalayas north of Nujibabad. They do not give promise of any workable fuel, and judging from the experience obtained in other parts of the hills, it is questionable whether any lignite deposits will ever be discovered of such extent that they will repay the cost of opening them up.

An analysis of a specimen of the Raníbagh lignite gave

The percentage of ash 36 contrasts favorably with that of the ordinary Indian coal raised in Bengal. The ash is colored by the presence of iron.

BITUMEN or mineral resin (Salajit*) occurs near the summit of many mountains where it exudes from crevices in the rocks.

In the neighbourhood of Kotegaon, Gowarse o, south of Paorce, it is seen near the top of large cliffs, and is worked by natives by means of a scaffolding suspended from the summit. I am unable to state the amount of it extracted. It is generally used as a medicine and exported to the plains. Medicine from Salajit is also prepared in Gunguli in Kumaon, but I have been unable to ascertain from whence the mineral is originally obtained.

LIMESTONE.-The Kumaon hills are prolific in limestones, occurring both in immense masses, exhibiting various shades of color and structure, and as local Tufa deposits.

In the newer geological formations of the lower hills it occurs sometimes as a light colored rock, and sometimes as the cementing material in conglomerate beds and very frequently as Tufa deposited by local springs and streams. The process of deposition is most active during the monsoon rains, and in nearly all the springs emanating from limestone rocks, the waters are highly charged with calcareous matter.

These tufaceous deposits occur less frequently in the higher ranges, but there the blue hard limestones generally containing silex, and other hard varieties, prevail, forming well defined beds, and in many instances they are the predominant rocks of some of the larger hill runs. Small blocks of very pure black limestones are sometimes to be met with, and I have picked up some small nodules of kunkur in the Luddy a river.

The principal material utilized by the natives of this district is Tufa, it being more easily burnt and prepared, and more suitable to the kutcha kilns in ordinary use. Where it has in its composition a little iron it seems to yield a strong mortar.

The localities in which lime is manufactured are very numerous, the most important being Nainí Tal and Jeolí for use in the neighbourhood.

In the Kharai range, half-way between Bagésur and Almora h, from which the latter station is almost wholly supplied. At Chitaili, in the hills north of Dwara Hat; at Simulkha, Baital Ghat, and Dekolí, in the Kosí valley, for consumption in the works in progress in the new military station at Raní khét, and on the new cart-road from thence to Ramnagar. There is also lime, somewhat silicious, in Agar Puttí, in the Retha Gâr range, Athagaon, and in almost all the hills in Gunguli. At Ramésur it skirts the road for miles.

It also occurs near Khyrna on the Almorah road, at Mulwa Tal, and in Geewar, &c. ROOFING SLATES, &c.-Roofing flags are very plentiful in the district of Kumaon, and are generally micaceous or chloritic.

At Chitailí near Dwara Hat there are some beds of imperfectly metamorphosed clay slate, the planes of cleavage seeming to occur almost in the same lines with the bedding. The quarry was formerly used to some purpose, but owing to the neglect of former owners, it has been for years filled up with debris, so that I was unable to observe the beds properly.

Clay slate occurs also in the neighbourhood of Nainí Tal, but the cleavage is imperfectly developed. There are a couple of quarries on the banks of the Ramgunga in Sult Puttí.

BUILDING STONES.-Almost everywhere in the district within easy reach good building stone is to be had. At Almorah fine-grained evenly-bedded quartzites and mica schist form the hill itself, and supply material not to be excelled for

* Mr. Lawder is here in error in calling Salajit bitumen or mineral resin. It is an alum or native sulphate of alumina which forms on the aluminous shales in the hills. At least such is the Salajit of Nepal, where it is well known and from which it is more largely exported than from Kumaon. Wonderful medicinal virtues are attributed to it, and in the plains it often sells for its weight in silver (sce Notice of a native sulphate of alumina from the aluminous rocks of Nepal, by J. Stevenson, Esq., Supt., H. C. Saltpetre Factories; Journal, Asiatic Society, Bengal, Vol. II, p. 321. Also On the alum or Salajit., of Nepal, by A. Campbell, Assistant Surgeon, &c., &c., ibid, p. 482; also a second note by Mr. Stevenson, p. 605). Whether the mineral referred to by Mr. Lawder be really the same as Salajit I cannot assert.-T. OLDHAM.