1845.] Fundamental Principles of Church Organization. 719 abuses of the papacy, and secure equally well the unity of the church. Henry sums up the fundamental principles of the reformer's system in the following manner: 1. "The gospel, not human institutions, forms the central-point of power, the animating principle; it secures to men salvation through faith in Christ; not through the visible church or external works. 2. The conscience and reason of men, enlightened by the Holy Spirit, recognize the truth in the Scriptures, and are again directed by the Scriptures, and secured against error and fanaticism. The Holy Spirit produces unity in the church, and secures its eternal existence under the different phases of the human mind. The synods give the final decision upon the meaning of the holy Scriptures, and they alone have the right to establish, alter or annul confessions of faith. 3. The fundamental principle of external organization in opposition to the catholic dominion, and the most effectual means for the crushing of spiritual domination, is that of the presbyterian government, in which Calvin opposed a double number of the laity to the clergy, in order that they might at any time overrule the clergy if they found it necessary. 4. The church, powerful through the spirit ruling in it, must be under the control of the State; external submission injures it not. 5. Finally, in order to secure order in the church and make a reformation of morals possible, Calvin desired rules for discipline: (a) a law (rendered necessary by the circumstances of the times) against free-thinkers, and heretics, for the purpose of securing unity and establishing the Reformation; (b) a disciplinary inspection, in order to guard against all immorality, a spiritual training, the Court of Morals, and the employment of forcible measures by it." It is impossible to enumerate particular regulations which Calvin adopted in order to secure these ends; many of them are well known, and have been the subject of much animadversion in every age since he lived; but it should seem that much useless discussion might have been saved, if the relation of Calvin to his times had been kept more distinctly in view. He did not form a polity for every age and for all nations. He. adapted it to his own little community and to the disturbed and restless age in which he lived. He, as it seems to us, wisely and skilfully steered between the extremes of tyranny and licentious ness, and deserves praise for what he did, rather than reproach for not doing what it was left for a later age to accomplish. The labor required in effecting these changes in the government and internal civil and ecclesiastical regulations, must have required not a little of Calvin's time and attention. But he found leisure for much other labor. He immediately prepared a catechism for the better instruction of his congregation, especially the younger members of it, in the principles of religion. This was a new work' in questions and answers and divided into lessons for fifty-five sabbaths, and not a remodelling of his catechism published in 1536 and 1538, which was an abstract of his Institutes. This synopsis of doctrines has justly been much valued as a church-symbol. It was known and studied by all the churches until a conparatively recent period. "It is now," says Henry," entirely banished from France. It is surely an indication of the folly of our century that it is making innumerable attempts to construct a new popular catechism, which it can never succeed in doing, because the best of this kind, is already in existence, and new ones, if compared with it, appear unsatisfactory, colorless and superficial." He also prepared a liturgy soon after his return to Geneva, which is the basis of the one now in use in the Reformed churches.-Every alternate week he preached every day, three times a week he delivered lectures on Divinity; on Thursday he presided in the consistory and on Fridays in what was called the congregation, a meeting for the collation and the exposition of Scripture. He was frequently called to assist the council with his advice; and his correspondence was very extensive, the fame of his piety and learning causing him to be consulted from all quarters. His labors in private in warning and admonishing offenders, in encouraging the faltering, in aiding the magistrates in reforming the manners of the Genevans, were constant and unremitting. Besides, he was often called to settle disputes and carry on controversies away from Geneva. Yet with all these daily and hourly avocations he found time for the preparation of his Commentaries which appeared from time to time, and for his numerous writings This catechism was published first in French in 1541 and in Latin in 1545. It was translated into Italian as early as 1545, into Spanish in 1550, and into German in 1563. It has also been published in the English, Scotch, Belgian, Hungarian, Greek, Hebrew, Basque and Polish languages. 2 Even the next year after his return, Calvin was away six weeks, at Strasburg, in order, if possible, to settle difficulties at Metz in France. 1845.] Labor accomplished by Calvin. 721 against the various errorists who sprang up in his little community, and for establishing and defending the several doctrines of the Christian system. It is wonderful that one man with such feeble health as Calvin had, could have accomplished so much. He should seem to have had a separate life for the employments of the study entirely apart from his life abroad, or rather as he himself says, the conflicts about him, which seemed to take so large a portion of his thoughts and energies, were, in his view, mere "skirmishes," not worthy to be taken into the account in enumerating his labors. His studies were pursued with the most perfect system and yet it appears that he was sometimes obliged to remain out of bed the whole night. He says: "When I get through with all my other duties, I have so many letters to write, and answers to give to so many questions that many a night passes without having brought to nature the offering of sleep." Together with his untiring industry, and the rigid system observed in his labors, an unusually tenacious memory, aided him much in the execution of so many and varied duties. It is said that he never forgot anything which pertained to his office, although he was interrupted on all sides and overburdened with questions. In the composition of his works he could break off from writing or dictating, and spend several hours in parish duties, and then go directly on, taking up the subject where he left it, without recurring to what he had before written. He also never seemed hurried, and was not conscious how much he performed.3 He however sometimes regretted that his numerous avocations did not permit him to make his writings more complete. 1 Velitationes. ers. * Calvin had also many services to perform for his friends and fellow laborIf they brought him their works to read, he found time to peruse them in the long night. To Viret he wrote, August, 1547: Librum de ecclesia et sacramentis, cum voles, mitte. Libenter legam, etiamsi mihi id oneris non imponeres. Tantum abs te peto, ut commoditate mea uti liceat. Nunquam enim minus habui otii, sed jam aliquanto plus dabunt longae noctes. 3 To Farel he writes, 10th Nov. 1550: Hoc vero atfirmo, non absque pudore me illam legisse epistolae tuae partem, ubi diligentia mea laudatur, cum mihi et pigritiae et tarditatis sim probe conscius. Faxit Dominus ut paulatim rependo aliquid proficiam. Exertions against the Catholics, 1542—1547. In 1542 the Sorbonne encouraged by their previous success in opposing the truth, took a bolder step, and assumed the right to direct in matters of faith and practice. They published twentyfive new articles of belief, which, either from fear or folly, were subscribed by the king and sanctioned by an edict. Calvin perceived the necessity of withstanding them by strong arguments. He accordingly discussed each article, beginning with an ironical proof after the method of the Catholics and then closing with a thorough and earnest confutation. A specimen of his manner in this discussion cannot be uninteresting. The twenty-third article of the Sorbonne declares: "It is certain, that there is by divine authority one chief Pontiff in the militant church, to whom all Christians must be obedient, and who indeed has power to grant indulgences." Calvin says: "This proposition is proved by the declaration. made to Peter: Thou art Peter and upon this rock, etc. If now the Lutherans say, that Peter is here named as one among a number of the faithful, and that the rock, the foundation-stone of the church is Christ; because Peter would be a bad foundation since he denied Christ; and, also according to Paul no other foundation can be laid than Christ; this must by no means be granted. For, when a different interpretation favors Rome, the principle of law is clear, i. e. that which is favorable must be extended (Quod favores debent ampliari). But the Lutherans here again object: Granted, for the sake of argument, that Christ really bestowed upon Peter the primacy, it follows not that he has also given it to all his successors, unless they are all willing to be called devils, since Christ says to Peter: Thou art Satan.' If then they inherit the one title, they must also receive the other. But here it is answered according to a principle of law, that things which are unfavorable must be restricted (Odia sunt restringenda). Or in yet another manner the dilemma may be avoided. In the first passage Christ spake to Peter as to a pope, in the second as to a private person. Furthermore they argue, why did Peter bequeath the primacy to Rome and 1 This work was called: Antidoton adversus articulos Facultatis Theologicae Sorbonicae. In French: Les Articles de la sacrée faculté de Theol. de Paris concernant notre foi et religion chrétienne et forme de precher. Avec le remède contre la poison, 1543. 1845.] Struggles against Popery. 723 not to Antioch? for he was bishop in both cities. The answer to this question is: A place receives renown from the death of a man, especially if a martyr's blood is poured out, which is of great price in the sight of God, according to the responsive hymn sung in his feast. The objector still continues: From the same cause should not James and John have received the second and third grade of primacy in their respective churches, as Peter received the first at Rome; for Paul says that these three were esteemed as pillars of the primitive church? To this the answer is, that if the others were not sufficiently zealous or courageous to assert their rights, Rome should not suffer on that account. Jerusalem and Ephesus in consequence of their remissness and timid silence, deserved to be cast into the back-ground, but Rome which contended with all its might for the honor, especially deserves to be considered the first city." Calvin proceeds still further in this same strain and then turns to a more serious mode of argumentation. Ridicule was at that time the most effective weapon in France, and Calvin certainly showed himself no novice in its use. In the controversy which soon followed this, with Pope Paul III, the manner of arguing is somewhat similar to that in the Antidote and the language used is indeed not less severe or effective than that which Luther sometimes employed in his controversies. The controversies just mentioned had more especial reference to the Catholic church in general. But the work on the Freedom and Servitude of the Will against Pighius gave an opportunity for the discussion of particular dogmas of that church. It was a continuation of the controversy of Erasmus with Luther and a renewal of that of the Pelagians with Augustine. Pelagianism or semi-Pelagianism had been adopted into the Papal church, and had become a part of itself. Luther had revived the doctrines of Augustine, and in doing it, had made an attack upon the Catholics. Calvin defended the German theologian, who, he said, "had not himself spoken but God had hurled lightnings from his mouth," and also carried war into the enemies' camp. He called his antagonist a hungry dog, who avenged himself by barking since he could not bite. This might be in our own day termed a breach of the rules of Christian courtesy, but yet Pighius himself was convicted of his error by the perusal of Calvin's book, and the gentle Melanchthon, returned him a letter of 1 Ancillon, (Mel. crit. Tom. II. 43, 44) says: Si les ennemis de Calvin le |