a bronze or copper color, straight coarse black hair, hazel eyes, and high cheek-bones. Their forms were erect, well proportioned, and remarkable for agility rather than strength. Their constant exercise kept them healthy. Deformity was almost unknown among them; and they were exempt from nany of the diseases of civilized life.

Descriptions of the Indians, as they originally appeared, have been left by many of the early adventurers; among others by Verrazzani [vā-rat-tsah'-ne], who first saw them on the coast of New Jersey and Staten Island, eighty-five years before the discovery of the Hudson River. He was there visited by an Indian chief, whom he describes as arrayed in a robe of deer-skins skilfully wrought with embroidery. His hair was gracefully tied behind, and his neck was adorned with a large chain set off with various stones. According to this author, the people generally had regular features, dark expressive eyes, and long locks which they dressed with care. The women were attired in ornamented skins; their hair was tastefully braided and flowed over the breast. The southern Indians wore head-dresses of feathers. As the heat increased towards the south, the clothing of the natives became lighter and scantier; and in the warmest regions much of the body was left bare.

45. Mode of Living.-When engaged in the chase or in warlike expeditions, which occupied a great part of his time, the Indian was exposed to the full force of the weather, lying on the ground without shelter and with no other protection than a fire to prevent attacks from the beasts of the forest. At home, he lived in a rude hut, made of poles covered with bark or skins, and called a wigwam [wig'-wom]. This was erected with little labor, and was abandoned when he was obliged to change his residence. Wigwams were generally found grouped together in villages.

were they exempt? By whom have descriptions of the Indians been left? Where did Verrazzani first see them? What does he say about the chief who visited him? How does he describe the people generally? How were the women attired? What did the Southern Indians wear? 45. When engaged in the chase or a warlike expedition, what Chelter and protection had the Indian? At home, in what did he live? Describe the

46. Food.-During many months of the year, the Indians lived by hunting, fishing, or digging roots from the ground. When these resources failed, they fell back on maize, or Indian corn, which was almost the only plant they attempted to cultivate. The labor of raising it devolved on the women, who planted it in holes dug in the ground with a rude implement. Manual labor

MODE OF LIVING,

of every kind was considered beneath the dignity of a warrior; the women, therefore, not only tilled the ground, but also erect

AN INDIAN WIGWAM.

33

ed the wigwams, cut their wood in the forest, prepared the meals, mended the moccasins, and even carried the baggage on a march.

It was characteristic of the Indians never to provide much food at a time, and therefore they often suffered from hunger. But trials of this kind they were trained to endure without a murmur. When food was plenty, they made up for their privations by eating as much and as often as they could.

Some of the tribes were better agriculturists than others, and in good seasons raised more corn than they needed for their own use. This was the case with the natives of Vir wigwam. 46. How did the Indian mostly obtain his subsistence? On what did they sometimes fall back? Who raised the maize, and how? How was manual labor regarded? What were the women obliged to do? How was it that the Indians often suffered from hunger? How did they make up for their privations? What is said of the agricultural operations of some of the tribes? How was it with the Virginia tribes?

ginia, by whose supplies the first settlers were kept from starvation for a considerable time. Yet little advance was made in agriculture or any other branch of industry. There were two reasons for this, besides the natural aversion of the Indian to labor. First, he was dependent entirely on himself, having never tamed the animals around him or taught them to labor in his behalf. In this he was behind the rudest nations of the old world. The Tartar had his horse, the Arabian his camel, the Laplander his reindeer; but the native American had no domestic animals, and was obliged to rely entirely on his own strength. Moreover, the Indians knew little of the useful metals. Gold, silver, and copper, circulated among them to a certain extent, but of iron they were totally ignorant. With their awkward tools, the simplest tasks were performed with great difficulty. To fell a tree with their stone hatchets would cost a month; and to turn up the ground with blunt and heavy hoes of the same material, was a labor from which it is not strange that they shrunk.

47. Hospitality.-The hospitality of the Indian was one of his greatest virtues. Among all the tribes, a stranger on his arrival was treated with the utmost respect and attention. The best the wigwam afforded was always placed before him, and his hosts were displeased if he did not eat, whether he needed food or not. However scanty their supply, they withheld nothing from their guest.

48. Marriage Customs.-Even among the rudest tribes, a regular union between husband and wife was universal. In districts where food was scarce, and it was difficult to maintain a family, the warrior confined himself to one wife; he was at liberty, however, to take as many as he could support. The marriage tie generally lasted till death, but among some tribes divorces were common.

The marriage ceremony was extremely simple. A young

What was the general state of agriculture? What two reasons are assigned for this? What metals were the only ones that circulated among the Indians? What kind of tools had they? 47. What was one of the Indian's greatest virtues? How did be treat a stranger? 48. What was universal even among the rudest tribes? How many wives did a warrior have? How long did the marriage tie last? Describe the marriage cer

man would often let his friends select a wife for him. He or his relations then made presents to the parents of the intended bride, which were accepted if the offer was approved; otherwise they were returned. In the former case, the parents dressed their daughter in her best clothes, and conducted her to the bridegroom's residence. The ceremony was then complete.

49. Family Relations.—The Indian wife, or squaw, had a hard lot. Besides being compelled to do all the drudgery, she was generally treated by her husband with indifference, and often with cruelty. For his children, particularly during infancy, the warrior entertained a stronger affection. He could endure pain without a groan; but, when misfortune overtook his offspring, he gave way to the most violent grief. The loss of a promising son was regarded as the greatest possible calamity; and often, to redeem a child from the enemy, a father has surrendered himself, and been burned at the stake in his stead.

50. Education. The education of the young Indian consisted chiefly of athletic exercises and such training as would enable him to endure hunger and fatigue. At the age of eight years, he was required from time to time to fast half a day, and at twelve often passed a whole day without food. or drink, his face being blackened during the fast. At eighteen, he underwent his final trial. His face was now blackened for the last time, and he was led far into the woods, where he was left without food as long as life could be so supported. His guardians then came for him, praised his endurance, took him home, and after various ceremonies informed him that he was now a man. No instance has ever been known of an Indian boy's eating or drinking while undergoing the trial of the blackened face.

In some tribes and families, the young were instructed in the history and institutions of their people. This task de

emony. 49. How was the Indian wife treated? How did the warrior feel towards his children? What has a father often done? 50. Of what did the young Indian's education consist? At the age of eight, what was he required to do? Describe his final trial, In some tribes, what were the young taught? On whom did this task devolve? What

volved on the old, who had themselves received their knowl. edge from chiefs that had preceded them. A venerable warrior once said that his father had labored day and night to teach him the laws, ceremonies, and history of his nation, "that he might one day benefit his people by his counsel". The necessity of fortitude and self-restraint was also impressed upon the mind from an early period.

51. Wars.--Indian wars usually consisted of expeditions carried on by small parties, whose object was to surprise the enemy, to kill as many as possible, and to return home in safety with the scalps of their victims. To be complete in their eyes, a victory had to be obtained by stratagem, and without any loss of their own number. There was little glory in gaining a battle by open force; and to fall on the field, instead of being thought honorable, was rather regarded as a proof of rashness or unskilfulness. In large bodies, from a want of discipline, they could not act with much success.

Their armies were not encumbered with baggage or military stores, but depended, for the small amount of food they needed, on the game they might meet with in the forest. To provide against emergencies, however, each warrior carried a bag of pounded maize; and, this with his arms being his only burden, he marched with great rapidity. On a warlike expedition, the chief led the way, and each of his followers trod noiselessly in his tracks, leaving as small a trail as possible. When there was danger of pursuit, the last warrior concealed the footsteps of the party by covering them with leaves and branches. The senses of the Indian were wonderfully acute, and great ingenuity was often shown in discovering the trail of a cunning enemy who had left little or no clue to his course.

52. In ancient times the weapons of the Indians were very rude, consisting principally of war-clubs, and hatchets, or

did a venerable warrior once say? What was early impressed on their minds? 51. Of what did Indian wars consist? What was essential to the completeness of a victory? What prevented their success, when acting in large bodies? With what were their rmies not encumbered? On what did they depend for food? What did each warrior carry? On a warlike expedition, how did they march? When there was danger of pursuit, what did the last warrior do? In what did the Indian display great ingenuity?