CHAPTER II. FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES UPON WHICH THE STUDY OF THE SENTENCE IS BASED. 11. The Judgment. The purpose of language is to express thought, and the commonest form of thought (the only one with which grammar concerns itself) is the judgment. The simplest judgment may be defined as a comparison of two ideas, involving a decision as to their relation to each other. Originally the mind receives its ideas through the special senses; as, an idea of "red" through vision, or an idea of "harmony" through hearing. Later the mind, through its own workings, forms new ideas from materials already gained. 12. The Nature of the Ideas Composing the Judgment. Ideas range from the simplest perceptions up to very complex notions. Among the simpler ones are the ideas of qualities or attributes of objects. We can scarcely analyze our idea of "red" into simpler elements; the only modification or characteristic of it being, perhaps, the idea of degree. On the contrary, our ideas of objects themselves are very complex, being made up of simpler perceptions of their attributes; hence, we say, the more attributes we perceive, the better our idea of the object. Our idea of an orange, for instance, is made up of ideas of size, shape, color, taste, etc.; and a certain number of these must be determined in an object before we can recognize it to be an orange. Ideas are 13. Relation of Ideas to the Judgment. the material of judgment. The mind is constantly comparing pairs of them, and deciding as to the relation existing between them. Of these pairs of ideas, one represents some object either in the realm of matter or of mind, and may be called the subject of thought; the other is commonly of the nature of an attribute, though it may be a general notion, including a group of attributes. The judging power of the mind couples these together, affirming or denying the attribute to the subject of thought, or identifying the subject-idea with the class represented by the second term, thus fixing the relation between them. 14. The Analysis of the Judgment. The essential elements of every judgment are three: 1. An idea representing the subject of thought. 2. An attributive or identifying idea. 3. A copula or relation element. 15. Modes of Expressing Ideas. Ideas may be expressed by symbols, called words, or by groups of these, called phrases. 16. Words. Ideas may be grouped into two great classes, those which represent things, and those which represent attributes of things; i.e., into substantive ideas, and attributive ideas. But, as has been shown, the mind in thinking detects relations existing between these ideas, hence symbols of relationship are needed. A word, then, is a sign, oral or written, of an idea, or of a relation, and words may be logically classified as follows. 17. Logical Classification of Words. 1. Substantive words represent a thing as an existence, whether in the physical or spiritual world, desk, arm, God, beauty. 2. Attributive words represent qualities, actions, conditions, or limitations of objects, large, goes, sick, two. Attributes have, of course, no existence apart from the objects to which they belong, and attributive words are therefore used only in close connection with substantive words. 3. Relation words represent relations existing between ideas,of, and, if. Alone, they have little significance, their attributes being very general. 4. Words including both an idea and a relation, - The boy who (if he) studies will improve. I will get it when I come = - I will come then and I will get it. 18. The Relation Between Ideas may be one of equality, showing them to be equally important in the expression of the thought, John and Mary studied together; or one of inequality, showing that one of the ideas is reduced to a mere modifier or limiter of the other, the friend of my friend is my friend. The first is a coördinate, the second a subordinate, relation, the modifier being the subordinate term. 19. Relations Between Ideas are shown in threeways: 1. By position of the words, I saw the child. 2. By a change in the form of the subordinate word, The child's hat was lost. - 3. By relation words, - The hat of the child was found. 20. Phrases. A phrase is a group of words not containing a subject and predicate, expressing a single though a complex idea. The commonest kind of phrase includes an idea and the relation it is to bear to something else, Ex. Of the child. Most substantive words imply a greater or less number of attributes, since an object is composed of many attributes. The word apple suggests vaguely taste, color, size, etc.; but the idea becomes much more definite (and at the same time more complex) by the addition of specific attributive words, a sweet, red apple, large as an orange. Yet the unit remains one idea. Phrases vary greatly as to composition and use. Their classifications will be given later. CHAPTER III. THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS. 21. The Sentence. The full expression of a judgment in words is called a sentence. The 22. The Essential Elements of the Sentence. sentence, being but a sign or indication of the judgment, must, of course, contain all the elements of the judgment. The portion which contains the subjectidea, is properly called the subject of the sentence. It is necessarily substantive in nature, since it names the subject-idea. The two remaining elements of the judgment, the copula and the attributive idea, are included in what is called the predicate. The copula may be expressed in a word which is always a form of "be," and the attribute in a separate descriptive word, Snow is white; or the two elements may be included. in a single symbol, -Snow falls; or lastly, the copula and a part of the attribute may be included in one symbol, the remaining and chief attribute following in a separate symbol, She feels (is feeling) better. 23. Two Instead of Three Parts in the Sentence. One would naturally expect the sentence to correspond as to number of parts with the judgment which it expresses; but since we commonly find the copula and attribute combined in one symbol, as, The horse runs |