other such change of form as regularly belongs to a derivative. Thus, many adjectives are used as nouns : for example,

the good and the wicked,

meaning good and wicked persons; or

the good, the beautiful, and the true,

meaning that which is good, etc. Some adjectives do not add ly (94) to form adverbs, but are themselves used directly as adverbs: for example,

much, little, fast, long, ill;

others sometimes add ly and sometimes are used as adverbs without it: for example,

full, wide, late, deep, mighty.

Nouns are sometimes used as adjectives: we do not say a golden watch but a gold watch. And both nouns and adjectives are turned into verbs: thus,

I head a rebellion;

I hand a paper;
I to e a mark;

I stomach an affront;

I black boots;

they bettered their condition;

This also is a kind of derivation.

I foot a bill;

I finger a pie;

I eye a scene;

I breast the waves;
the fruit matures;
the work wearied him.

100. We also have derivative words made by putting some thing before the primitive, instead of after it. Thus, a host of words, of various kinds, may have un put before them, making a derivative which is the same part of speech, but of opposite meaning. For example, untrue and untruthful are adjectives, the opposite of true and truthful; and untruly and untruthfully are adverbs, the opposites of truly and truthfully. We can say also untruth, though there are far fewer nouns to which we add un in this way; other examples are unbelief, unrest. And verbs derived with un, like undo and undress, are still less common.

101. An addition thus made at the beginning of a word is called a PREFIX instead of a suffix (prefix means 'fixed or fastened

on in front'). Prefixes are in English much less common than suffixes; and they do not ordinarily change the part of speech of the word to which they are added. Other examples are

befall, gainsay, recall, dis honest, mis chance.

102. We saw above that the suffix ful, of truthful and other words like it, was really the adjective full added to the noun truth, in such a way that the two form but a single word. It would be proper, then, to say that truthful is a word made up of the two other independent words truth and full. Further examples are

rainbow, grass-plot, gentleman, washtub,

high-born, homesick, browbeat, fulfil.

Such a word is called a COMPOUND; the two parts are said to be COMPOUNDED, and the putting them together is called COMPOSITION (which means simply 'putting together ').

103. There are great numbers of compound words in English, and we are all the time making new ones.

Sometimes the compounded words stand in the compound. just as they would in a sentence, and seem simply to have grown together into one: such are

blackberry, broadaxe, gentleman, highland, grandfather. But much more often they have such a relation to one another that if we used them separately we should have to change their order, or put in other words to connect them, or both: thus, housetop is the top of a house,' headache is an 'ache in the head,' heartrending is 'rending the heart,' blood-red is 'red like blood,' knee-deep is 'deep up to the knee,' washtub is a 'tub to wash in,' drawbridge is a 'bridge made to draw up,' steamboat is a 'boat that goes by steam,' and so on.

Then there are cases in which the relation of the two words is still more peculiar: thus, a pickpocket is a 'person who picks. pockets,' a telltale is 'one who tells tales'; and we call one a red-coat because he wears a red coat.'

6

104. A compound is thus generally a shortened or abbreviated description of something. The compounded word, though really made up of two, comes to

seem only one to us, and especially because we pronounce one of its parts more strongly and distinctly than the other—or, as it is called, lay an ACCENT on one member of the compound. Compare, for example, highland with high land, gentleman with gentle man.

105. A compounded word often changes its pronunciation still further, so that, without studying its history, we do not think of what it comes from. So with holiday, which is holy day; furlong, which is furrow-long; fortnight, which is fourteen night; so with forehead and breakfast, and many others.

106. Indeed, we can only make a beginning of understanding the derivation and composition of English words, unless we study their history, in the older languages from which our English has come, and the other languages with which it is related (3).

107. Thus far we have been looking at the words we use in order to be able to tell to what class each one belongs, or what "part of speech" it is; to see what are the principal uses of each part of speech in the sentence; how some parts of speech are inflected; and how some words are derived from others, or put together to form others. Now we need to take up each part of speech by itself, and examine it more fully with regard to some of these matters.

EXERCISES TO CHAPTER IV.

FOR ANALYZING DERIVATIVE AND COMPOUND WORDS.

It must be left to the judgment of the teacher, how far the pupils shall be expected or required to take apart and explain the derivative and compound words which occur in the exercises. If he chooses, this whole fourth chapter may be omitted at first, and also the paragraphs on simple, derivative, and compound words in the following chapters on the parts of speech; and the whole subject may be left until the Grammar is studied through a second time. But it is believed that nothing is brought forward here which is not so simple and elementary that even young scholars may take it up with advantage; and that exercise from the beginning in such simple analysis as the chapter illustrates will be a useful introduction to that study of the history of English words which is to be aimed at, but which only more advanced works can properly deal with.

The enlightened teacher should supplement from his own knowledge the inquiries started here, adapting his further instruction to the capacities of his

classes: especially, if they have studied Latin, by leading their attention to the Latin origin, and the derivation by Latin methods, of many of the words met with.

VIII. Miscellaneous examples.

The sky is darkened with thunder-clouds. The snow-drifts lie breast-high in the fence-corners. The industrious laborer wins wealth and happiness. This proud countess was only a beggar-girl in her childhood; she is the heroine of a wonderful and almost incredible story. The prisoner escaped from the keeping of his kind-hearted jailer; but the runaway was speedily recaptured, after a brief but wearisome chase. The rosy-faced school-boy runs to the play-ground with joyous swiftness. Your lordship is welcome. My grandfather sat in his easy-chair, and gazed at the beautiful landscape. The pickpocket was caught by the policeman, and, for security, placed in close confinement. His penknife lies beside the inkstand on his study-table.

Great princes have great playthings.

Blind unbelief is sure to err.

Misery acquaints a man with strange bedfellows.

Thou art glorious in holiness, fearful in praises.

There's neither honesty, manhood, nor good fellowship in them.
He drags at each remove a lengthening chain.

Tis Jove's world-wandering herald.
The snow shall be their winding-sheet.
Borrowing dulls the edge of husbandry.
So sinks the day-star in the ocean-bed.

The breezy call of incense-breathing morn,

The swallow twittering from the straw-built shed,
No more shall rouse them from their lowly bed.
Out of the cloud-folds of her garments shaken,
Over the woodlands, brown and bare,
Over the harvest-fields forsaken,

Descends the snow.

Athens arose -a city such as vision

Builds from the purple crags and silver towers
Of battlemented cloud, as in derision

Of kingliest masonry; the ocean-floors

Pave it; the evening-sky pavilions it;
Its portals are inhabited

By thunder-zoned winds, each head

Within its cloudy wings with sun-fire garlanded.

CHAPTER V.

NOUNS.

108. A NOUN is, as we have seen (32), the name of anything.

We have noticed the principal uses of the noun in the sentence. Most important of all, it is the subject of the sentence:

It is governed by a preposition (44): thus,

I look at the sun with my eyes, through a glass.

It is qualified by an adjective: thus,

I look at the bright sun, not with my naked eyes, but through a dark glass.

There are other uses of the noun, which will be explained later; but these are the ones by which we can best try a word,

to see whether it is or is not to be called a noun.

CLASSES OF NOUNS.

109. A noun is sometimes the name of a separate or individual object: thus,

But a noun is also the name of a part of such an object: