always be such a class, but the question which interests those who are concerned with the welfare of society is-How large shall this class be?

Looked at from the industrial standpoint, what are the conditions? The old apprenticeship system is rapidly disappearing, and even where it is still in operation, manufacturers do not want apprentices under sixteen to eighteen years of age. There are few opportunities today for a young person to learn a trade in its entirety, under conditions at all favorable, and for the boy under sixteen years of age there are no opportunities. The minute division of labor which has accompanied the development of our manufacturing industries has eliminated many of the trades which, earlier in the industrial development of the country, were a necessity. What was formerly done by one individual is now the work of many individuals and complicated machinery. While this has reduced the necessity for the continuance of the old apprenticeship system, it has introduced a class of labor in which the individual is trained to do but a single thing and which does not demand the wide range of mental activity and development necessary under the older system, nor does it secure the power of initiative on the part of the operative. While the division of labor which has accompanied the development of our manufacturing industries has resulted in cheaper production, it is coming to be recognized by manufacturers generally that cheapness is not the only essential element in the command of the markets of the world. Quality as well as cheapness is an essential, and quality demands intelligent labor -intelligence which goes beyond the mere manipulation necessary in a single process; an intelligence which comprehends the relations between processes, and between processes and material; an intelligence which makes it possible for the individual to adapt himself to new conditions and to be an effective economic unit under whatever conditions he may be placed.

Manufacturers complain that there is a dearth of men whose training has been sufficiently broad in a particular line of work in which they are engaged to fit them as foremen and department superintendents, and they are demanding that some means shall be provided to prepare young men more adequately for effectiveness in the industrial field. Manufacturers and men of affairs are awakening to the conditions which exist in some of the other countries of the world, especially in Germany, due to the establishment of numerous trade and technical schools, and are recognizing that our educational system makes no adequate provision for giving such training, and that with the going-out of the apprenticeship system nothing has been provided to take its place. They have noted the marvelous strides Germany has made in recent years in the industrial world, and have studied the reasons and have found them not in the advantages which Germany possesses in raw material, in means of transportation, or in other of the material things which we possess to a degree far in excess of any other country in the world, but in the development of the educational system of Germany on technical and industrial lines, and they are demanding a modification of our educational system on similar lines.

In recent years educators have been studying this problem and a marked change is evident in their view of the inadequacy of our present educational system. They are coming to recognize that the fundamental thing in educational effort is to develop the capacity to earn a livelihood. Because further development along cultural or other lines is conditioned by the capacity of the individual to support himself, they are recognizing that this demands the introduction of industrial education in training young people to do something with their hands, as well as to know something of what other people have thought and done.

The statement of conditions as thus set forth would seem to make imperative the necessity for the establishment of schools in our cities, whose prime purpose shall be to fit boys and girls between the ages of fourteen and sixteen to earn a living; not to take the place of existing schools, but to furnish an opportunity for the large number of children who do not remain in the schools and who would avail themselves of this opportunity if it were afforded, to begin the mastery of some trade and to enable them to secure employ

ment at a higher wage and with greater opportunities for advancement than is possible under existing conditions.

The report of the Massachusetts commission shows that the parents of at least 45 per cent. of the children between the ages of fourteen and sixteen who withdraw from the public schools would keep them in schools of this class if they were provided, instead of allowing them to roam the streets or to engage in the low grade of unskilled labor which alone is open to them; and that the parents of 76 per cent. of these children are able to keep them in such schools. From the standpoint of the boy and girl, from the standpoint of the manufacturer, and from that of society itself, such a system of schools seems a necessity.

In years past there has been some question as to the right, or as to the wisdom, of a policy of providing schools at public expense, whose avowed purpose was to fit the individual to earn a living. Public sentiment upon that question has materially changed in recent years. State institutions are maintained by public taxation, furnishing just this class of instruction on the higher levels of industrial effort. An examination of the right of the state to maintain a public-school system fails to disclose any reason why such a system should be so constituted as to bar what is necessary training for the earning of a livelihood in a particular direction, and instead, to offer what is regarded by some as a possible, but which generally proves to be an inadequate, preparation for earning a livelihood in any direction. Briefly stated, the state has a right to do whatever is necessary for its well-being and perpetuity; good citizenship is essential for such well-being and perpetuity; the fundamental factor of good citizenship is a trained intelligence which enables the individual to support himself and those dependent upon him; a school which provides such training and sends out individuals so trained may be supported legitimately by public funds. If a large number of the children of any given community are not having opportunities furnished for the training which enables them to meet this necessity, then the state is failing in its duty to itself.

At the outset it may be necessary for public-spirited citizens to provide the funds for the establishment of industrial schools wherein can be demonstrated the value of industrial education. Although in a number of states public sentiment is sufficiently advanced to have secured legislation providing for public support of such schools, in localities where such sentiment does not already exist, private initiative must furnish the object-lesson out of which an enlightened public sentiment shall grow.

For the class of children under consideration, the trade school is unquestionably the kind of school needed-the school in which the individual shall be made master or shall make considerable progress in the mastery of some occupation in which there is a demand for his services. The work should not be exclusively hand work, but should be associated with such related academic work as will be of the greatest value to the individual.

It may be felt that there is some danger in the establishment of such schools that they will have a tendency to draw away from the public schools, at an early age, children who, under existing conditions, would remain in them longer. The children who would thus be drawn away are in the main those who will find their life-work in some phase of industrial effort. For this class of children there must be provided opportunities farther along in which they can prepare themselves for the still higher forms of industrial activity. With such schools provided, there would be little inducement for children to leave the public schools who otherwise would remain in them and who see, farther on, opportunities for specific industrial training in various fields.

The introduction of manual training, looking distinctively toward the industrial lines of development, if made a part of the elementary course of instruction in the cities, would undoubtedly awaken an interest which would hold many pupils in school longer than they now remain. It would give them a general training which would make them more efficient in the specific work of a trade school, and if carried on through the high school would lay the foundations for a much broader and more effective industrial training than is now

possible. It would develop the artistic sense so lacking in the manufacturing field in this country today. It would give a breadth of mental training not now secured by the public schools which confine their efforts to the study of books alone.

A practical question in the development of trade schools may arise which should receive consideration. By some it is feared that such a movement would be opposed by the labor unions. Even the introduction of manual training has been opposed in some cities by such organizations. I do not believe that the best elements in organized labor are opposed either to manual training or to the establishment of trade schools. A considerable number of the most prominent labor leaders have already committed themselves as favorable to the establishment of trade schools. They know that the higher the grade of intelligence and the greater the efficiency of the workman, the stronger the position of organized labor. The leaders in this movement whose influence is not the mere momentary influence of the demagogue but the outgrowth of intelligence and wisdom, recognize that the interests of the laborer are closely bound up with the interests of the manufacturer, and that whatever can be done to dignify labor and to make it more effective is the course of wisdom for both the employer and the employé. It is the sons and daughters of the rank and file in the army of labor who are to be benefited personally by the establishment of this class of schools.

The purpose and place of these schools in the educational system must be made clear. The manufacturer, the public-spirited citizen, the educator, the labor leader, and the rank and file of labor must come together for the discussion of this subject. Those who are advocating it must be prepared to present a definite, well-organized plan to show to all who are interested that the aim is the bettering of conditions for both employer and employé. When once there is a common ground of understanding, all opposition will disappear, and the trade school will be a strong bond of mutual interest between the laborer and the manufacturer.

II. F. B. DYER, SUPERINTENDENT CITY SCHOOLS, CINCINNATI

The problem stated.—Children are usually released from compulsory school attendance at fourteen. Many drop out sooner unless there is a vigilant "attendance department." Careful investigation shows that in large cities more than one-half of our youth avail themselves of the privilege in their fifteenth year, or almost immediately. Probably onehalf of these do not get beyond the fifth grade. This means that one-fourth of our people are practically illiterate, receiving only the education that normal children have at ten years of age.

The following statistics are given as a basis for the above statement:

The number of children present on the 21st of February, in a large city, with their age at their last birthday, was as follows: 12 years old, 3,605; 13 years old, 3,191; 14 years old, 2,029; 15 years old, 1,089. The number 15 years of age were 34 per cent. of the number 13 years of age. Nearly two-thirds of our pupils leave school in their fifteenth year.

On the same date the clerk of the Attendance Department looked up the record of the last hundred boys and the last hundred girls, under 15 years of age, who had applied for certificates to work.

Of those who stopped school at 14 or very shortly thereafter—

2 per cent. of the boys and

2 per cent. of the girls were in the 3d grade

It will be seen that over 50 per cent. of those who stopped at 14, got no farther than

the 5th grade, and 25 per cent. more reached only the 6th grade.

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The reasons for stopping may be classified under two heads: necessity and inclination, and the latter is probably more general and fundamental than the former; for when the inclination to stop is strong, the necessity can readily be demonstrated.

Whether these statistics are representative or not (and I believe they are), all will concede that our great cities are permitting to develop a large proletariat whose rule is king mob. Many of these youths take minor positions, which they soon outgrow; but they get no farther, for they are fitted for nothing better. There is danger of their becoming loafers at 18, and criminals at 20. If they go into the factories they are likely to make poor, incompetent workmen; the modern factory system scarcely allows of apprentices, and in the few remaining trades such apprentices are neglected, and the quality of the work degenerates. An industrial system that is largely recruited from the illiterate and incompetent, with no means of self-improvement, will not long be able to compete with the systems of other countries, whose rank and file are skilled and intelligent artisans, elaborately trained in the theory and practice of their special vocations.

Something may be done in our present school system to remove the inclination of youth to leave, by the introduction of manual courses that will make it seem to them worth while to continue. Something may be done for backward children, as will be brought out in another topic on this program, but the problem will remain: What can be done for the great number of illiterate and inefficient youth who are scarcely touched by our educational system?

Evening school as a method of solution.-The evening schools are doing something, and in the expansion of their work lies the readiest method of attacking the problem. Above all others, the teachers of our evening schools should be chosen for their sympathy, enthusiasm, and teaching ability, from the most capable people available. Enough teachers should be clustered at a center to permit a fairly close classification of students. A continuous course should be offered in the essentials from the sixth elementary grade through the four years of high school. The latter course should be sufficient to admit to professional schools. This has been accomplished in some cities in a way more or less satisfactory, usually the latter. Attendance is irregular and capricious, depending upon the magnetism of the teacher.

But the larger number of youths do not respond at all to such instruction. In many instances they have left school to escape it. They are at work in factories and business houses. The only thing that appeals to them is help in their immediate and imminent needs. They do not care to read, unless it is in close relation to what they do; to study mathematics, unless it applies closely to their vocation; to attend to civic instruction unless it has a bearing upon their own civic and business relations. What they do care for is an industrial course consisting of the principles of industrial work and industrial art, and their practical application, leading up and finally applied to their own vocation. The same with suitable modifications may be said of commercial instruction.

The evening school at best is a mixed blessing. The child of 14 who works all day, probably beyond his strength, is often not in fit condition for prolonged mental effort at night. The time is too meager to accomplish much. Capable instructors in technical subjects outside of usual school teaching are hard to find. The conventional schoolroom is not a suitable laboratory, and cities are not frantic to equip special buildings for night use only. Especially will such a system be very imperfect so long as attendance is optional with the student and unsupported by the state.

In spite of these objections, however, I believe that every large city should give immediate attention to the expansion of the evening school, and the differentiation and development of its industrial, commercial, domestic, and general course, in a manner not yet attempted in any American state. Out of this will almost certainly evolve and arise an industrial and trade-school system such as the needs demand. The rapid increase of manualtraining high schools prepares the way.

The evolution of industrial schools in other countries.-The evolution of a system of

industrial education may be studied in almost any state of northern Europe. In Baden, for example, children may go to work at the age of 14, but must continue their schooling until 16, when they must enter a trade school in which they are engaged in industrial occupations.

The continuation schools were at first evening schools, somewhat like our own, but many of them developed later into industrial evening schools. Some of these were opened during the day, and employers released their boys for certain hours to attend them. The employers soon found it preferable to take boys who had completed their preliminary training, and many of the continuation schools became general industrial day schools.

Trade schools have existed there for generations, supported by trade organizations, as the guilds have ever been solicitous for their apprentices and ambitious to improve their skill and ability, and thus increase the prestige of their guild. But with the rise of modern industries and the development of industrial continuation schools, the trade schools multiplied everywhere, taking the youth after their general industrial education and fitting them for their special vocations. As the need for such schools was shown, the city supported them, and the state granted one-half the running expenses. With this aid most of the trade schools and many of the general industrial elementary schools became day as well as evening schools, and a state school for training teachers for those special schools was established.

Five years ago Baden, with the population of Chicago, supported 200 evening schools, of which 96 were general industrial schools, 28 were primary commercial schools, 36 were domestic science schools, and the others general continuation schools. Forty-six industrial schools were also day schools. These schools prepare the way for the trade schools, which are open to those who are 16. Every city must have at least one continuation school, and every boy must attend either an industrial or commercial continuation school (either day or evening) for two years after completing the common-school course, unless he goes on to the higher schools.

General industrial schools necessary. From a study of foreign systems it appears that general industrial schools should be opened in our cities. These should admit pupils 14 years of age upon very easy terms as regards scholarship.

Those who have not completed their elementary schooling (who, you will remember, will constitute three-fourths of the attendance) should continue in the most essential studies, but their promotion should depend almost wholly upon their advancement in industrial work. Attendance, either in day or evening schools, should be compulsory until 16, except as excused by central authority. (I believe this is now the law in New York.)

Trade organizations should agitate the opening of trade schools, to specialize the work of the student after 16. They should take the initiative and, I believe will, if it is properly brought to their attention. The trade school in some form will come shortly to every city. The whole country is looking with interest upon the experiment in public trade schools just begun in Philadelphia, and to the outcome of the report of the Connecticut commission, recommending the opening of a general elementary industrial school in every city, one-half of the support to be given by the state. A similar report in Massachusetts is awaiting action. A National Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education is at work. The President of the United States has sent a message to Congress upon the subject. Recent consular reports show conclusively that the prestige of American industries will rapidly decline unless our educational systems are expanded. Our doctrinaires who decry the education of youth to make a living have long held the field, but perhaps they have not seen the whole truth. It is possible that there may be some culture and much character-building in a serious training to earn an honest livelihood. Better for the submerged half of our youth an education that will produce intelligent and competent artisans than no education.