are in training, these monthly conferences, conducted as round table discussions, should be productive of great good to the intending principal, to the school represented, and to the university teachers. Given an energetic and ambitious young man or woman with sound academic preparation, successful experience as a classroom teacher, a year's professional study, a sympathetic and progressive superintendent and principal, a staff of teachers working in harmony with the administration, and a school not too large or too small, the year of training should equip the student principal for a school of his own and his real entrance into the principalship. He is now about 26 years of age, the median age of entering the principalship. (Table 33.) He can now enter a principalship of his own with confidence in his ability to organize and supervise the school according to best practice.

The principalship will not be really professionalized and recognized as such until the principal's training is commensurate with the heavy duties and responsibilities connected with it. The program of training as outlined in this chapter should mark a long step in the direction of professionalization. The initiative should be taken by the State. Either by legislative enactment or by regulations of the State board of education, definite requirements should be set up for the principalship, with provision for the principal's certificate. The minimum requirements for the certificate should be the training outlined in sections 1, 2, and 3. The completion of the training outlined under 3 should qualify the student for the degree of master of arts in secondary education. The principal's professional diploma should be granted only to those who complete satisfactorily the training outlined in section 4. It should be the reward for real merit, an attestation of the fitness of the holder to serve as a leader of teachers and pupils.

Where the initiative is not taken by the State, the State university should inaugurate a complete program as outlined in this chapter. The provision of superior training will attract a sufficient number of men and women to make the program worth while. The professional diploma will designate available leaders for schools looking for leaders.

At present adequate opportunities do not exist in a number of States for real professional training. Tables 22 and 23 show that opportunities are especially lacking in the east and west South Central divisions and in the Mountain division. It should be the duty of every State to provide real professional training for its principals in the same way that it provides professional training for its doctors, lawyers, and engineers.

APPENDIX A

HEADS OF SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN ENGLAND, FRANCE, AND GERMANY

ENGLAND

The head of the English secondary school for boys is called the head master; of the secondary school for girls, the head mistress. The status of the head master is described in a letter from the secretary of the incorporated association of head masters in answer to an inquiry by the writer:

1. Academic training.—To obtain a headmastership, a degree of some university is necessary. Most schools require a degree in honors, but this is not universal.

2. Professional training.—The great majority of head masters have begun as assistant masters in secondary schools. In rare instances, head masters have been appointed who have been distinguished university lecturers without school experience, but these are probably not 1 per cent of the whole. It is not uncommon to appoint as head masters of large and important schools those who have already been head masters of smaller schools.

3. Method of appointment.—The governing body of a school put an announcement in the newspapers that they have a vacancy. Candidates send in a letter of application, stating their qualifications, with testimonials from chiefs for whom they have worked. The governing body examine these and select a small number of candidates whom they interview. The governors then vote for a candidate, each governor voting for the man he thinks best.

Different governing bodies look for different qualifications. Teaching power is, of course, important; and governors like a man who has had wide experience, generally in two or three different kinds of schools. If any assistant master has had the opportunity of showing his power of organization, as for instance in being in charge of any special department of a school, this would help him considerably toward a headmastership.

4. Head master's authority.—The head master has the entire arrangement of the time-table, and assigns all the teaching to be done by the assistant masters. He also has free choice of books. In the past the head master had the sole power of the appointment and dismissal of the assistants, but the usual practice now is for the head master to appoint an assistant on probation for one year, after which the appointment of the assistant is confirmed by the governing body, and then he can only be dismissed by the governing body. In most schools the head master alone has the authority to administer corporal punishment. He has power to expel a boy from school, but he must report such expulsion to the governing body. It is generally considered that in England, the personal influence of the head master is the most important factor in the whole school, and most head masters do a good deal of teaching for the purpose of getting to know their boys. In France, the personal influence of the "proviseur" is nonexistent.

5. Tenure of office.-Most head masters retain their office till ill health or overage compels them to resign. At present, some governing bodies insist on resignation at 65, and service after 65 must not count toward a pension.

The head master may be dismissed for misconduct by a resolution passed at two meetings of his governing body, or he may be required to withdraw at six months' notice, by a resolution passed at one meeting.

6. Salaries. Salaries vary enormously. They may be anything from £500 to £1,500, and considerably more than £1,500 in the great public schools.

The status of the head mistress is described in a letter to the writer from the secretary of the Association of Head Mistresses:

1. Academic training.-The majority of the head mistresses of public secondary schools have taken a university course and degree (or its equivalent).

2. Professional training.-Not many of the present head mistresses of public secondary schools have received professional training; they have got their training through experience gained as assistant mistresses. Training is, however, likely to become usual in the future.

3. Method of selection and appointment.-Vacancies in headships of schools are advertised in the public press. A subcommittee of the governing body of the school, or of the higher education of the local authority, meets to make a selection of the candidates who have applied for the appointment, and those selected are interviewed, and the candidate who receives the most votes is appointed. In the past, the signing of an agreement has not been universally practiced. Lately, since certain regulations of the board of education regarding qualifications for pension have been foreshadowed, my association recommends that members shall ask for a formal agreement on appointment.

4. Authority of the head mistress.-The head mistress is responsible for the internal organization and control of the school.

5. Tenure of office. The head mistress holds office subject to notice, usually three or six months, on either side. Some schemes for the administration of schools require resignation at the age of 60. The board of education has fixed 65 as the maximum age for pension.

6. Salary. Salaries vary greatly. In the great majority of public schools under local authorities there is a minimum salary of £500 per annum. But £800 per annum is not an unusual salary in a large school, and several head mistresses of public secondary schools for girls receive over £1,000 a year.

FRANCE

The head of the French State secondary school, the lycée, is the proviseur or head master. His training is that required of all teachers in lycées, consisting of the following phases:

1. Higher normal school.-Young men between the ages of 18 and 24 who hold the bachelor's degree from a secondary school may be admitted to the Higher Normal School located at Paris by passing a competitive examination. Each year written examinations are given at the academy seats of the country, and oral examinations in Paris. Candidates choose between the letters section and the science section. Successful candidates serve their year in the army and then begin three years' training for the agrégation. The first year is devoted to intensive preparation for the master's degree. In the second year the candidate continues his preparation for this degree and must gain it at the end of the year. The third year is spent in preparation for the agrégation.

1 Farrington, Frederick E.: French Secondary Schools, 1910, chs. 6 and 15.

2. Professional training. During the second year a small beginning is made in professional study. During the third year, in addition to his academic training, the student must prepare a number of lessons to be given to the professors and classmates. He must also spend at least three weeks in a lycée, teaching under the regular teacher.

3. Examination for the agrégation.-At the close of the third year the candidate must take the final test-the examination for the agrégation. There are eight orders of the agrégation: Philosophy, history and geography, letters, grammar, modern languages, mathematics, physical sciences, and the natural sciences. The examinations in the various subjects consist of from two to five written papers, each of a duration of seven hours. The candidate must also prepare one or more lessons within a specified time. With this examination safely behind him, the candidate is ready for his life work of teaching and must be given a position in a lycée if he so desires.

The position of the head master is strictly an administrative one, rather than supervisory. His whole time is taken up with detail work-furnishing reports to superiors, examining pupils' reports, interviewing parents, etc. The real inspection of the school is in the hands of the academy inspector. As compared to the English head master, the head of the French secondary school has no real authority or influence.

The maximum salary of the head master before the war was 13,000 francs in Paris and 10,500 francs in other parts of France. In addition to his regular salary, the head master is furnished an apartment in the school and has annual allowance of wood and oil. The position of the head master is secure. As civil officer of the State he is beyond the reach of political influence. He has the assurance of a position until the age of retirement is reached, and beyond that a State pension as long as he lives.

GERMANY'

The administrative and supervisory head of the German secondary school is the director. The training of the director is the same as that of regular teachers in the secondary schools. He must be a university graduate and have definite professional training. Specifically, his training is as follows:

1. University training.-Choice of a profession is made for the German boy early in life. Parents of boys attending secondary schools decide on the future life work, and the future education lies. straight ahead. If the profession chosen is that of teaching in secondary schools, the boy passes from the secondary school to the university. Here he spends at least three years, but more often four

* Russell, James E.: German Higher Schools, 1910, chs. 18 and 19.

or five. His university work is determined by the subjects he expects to teach and in which he will be examined by the State.

2. State examination.-The State examinations are conducted by a board of examiners appointed by the minister of public instruction. The examinations include pedagogy and philosophy, German language and literature, religion, and the subjects which the student expects to teach. The last-named is the most important part of the examination. The examination is both written and oral, designed to keep undesirables out of the profession.

3. Seminarjahr. Students who pass the State examinations are eligible to continue training for teaching by pursuing professional study in a State or university seminar. The year's work consists of pedagogical instruction, observation, practice teaching, and the writing of a dissertation on some phase of secondary education. If the work of the candidate is satisfactory in all respects, the director of the seminar notifies the provincial inspector who sends the student to his probejahr.

4. Probejahr. Service during the probejahr is usually in the larger schools, under the direction of older teachers. Candidates teach six or eight hours per week and perform such other duties as may be assigned to them. If the work of the probejahr is satisfactory, the candidate is placed on the State eligible list to await the time five or six years in the future when he will be appointed to a regular position in a secondary school.

Directors of schools are chosen from among the most promising secondary teachers. In practice the director is chosen by the provincial inspector who, in the exercise of his duties, becomes acquainted with teachers who show signs of leadership. The man so chosen is always an experienced and skillful teacher.

The duties of the director are very numerous. He has the whole responsibility of the school, in addition to teaching at least 12 hours per week. His official orders require that he observe the work of his teachers, settle faculty disputes, keep in touch with parents, make exhaustive reports to his superiors, and be responsible for the professional growth of his teachers.

The salaries of directors before the war ranged from $1,200 to $1,800, with $375 extra in Berlin for house rent. As compared to the English and French head masters, the German director has a very low salary. The prestige of official position, however, offsets the difference. The German director occupies a position that is greatly envied, because of the scholastic attainments required and because he occupies a high State position where his tenure is secure, and for which he will be pensioned when he reaches the age of retirement.