SOCRATES, a Greek philosopher, born at Athens in 470 B.C.; died there in 399 B.C. He was the son of a sculptor, to whose profession he was brought up, and which he exercised for a while with good success; but gave it up in order to become what we may call a "private lecturer" on ethics, in obedience to what he esteemed a divine monition. It was his wont to frequent workshops and public places, discoursing to anyone who would listen to him. His favorite method of disputation was to assume the attitude of a learner, put a series of artful questions until his interlocutor had involved himself in some selfcontradiction or manifest absurdity, and then bear down upon him with the keenest ridicule.

Though he set up no school, had no fixed place of instruction, and even disclaimed the appellation of a teacher, there gathered around him in time a group of men who may properly be called his disciples. Among these were two young men, Plato and Xenophon, from whom we learn nearly all that we know about Socrates and his teaching. For more than sixty years he seems to have been an Athenian citizen of good repute. But toward the close of his life he incurred the disfavor of the party which had obtained the political ascendancy. In his seventieth year he was indicted upon charges that he was "guilty, firstly, of denying the gods recognized by the state, and

introducing new divinities; secondly, of corrupting the young." The tribunal before which he was arraigned consisted of 500 "judges." He was found guilty by a vote of 280 to 220; and was sentenced to die by drinking a decoction of the poisonous" hemlock," a species of cicuta. Thirty days intervened between the sentence and its execution. During this period he was kept in prison, securely bound; but his friends were allowed free access to him, and he discoursed to them upon the loftiest themes, as is recorded by Plato, especially in the Phædo.

Socrates committed none of his teachings to writing. It is not altogether certain how far the words which Plato puts into the mouth of Socrates were actually spoken by him. But there can be little question that the Apologia, or "Defence," of Socrates is substantially the speech which he made at his trial. After having defended himself against the special charges made against him, and apparently after the vote had been taken, but before the sentence had been pronounced, Socrates turned to his friends among the "judges," and discoursed upon the question

of the moment.

THE PROBLEM OF LIFE AND DEATH.

Friends, who would have acquitted me, I would like to talk with you about this thing which has happened, before I go to the place at which I must die. Stay then awhile, for we may as well talk with one another while there is time.* You are my friends, and I should like

*Socrates supposed that the execution would take place on that day, according to Athenian usage. The delay of thirty days happened unexpectedly by reason of the occurrence of a religious festival.

them to resign it; every enemy to it was looked upon as a disbeliever in Divine Providence, and any nefarious churchwarden who wished to succeed in his election had nothing to do but to represent his antagonist as an abolitionist, in order to frustrate his ambition, endanger his life, and throw the village into a state of the most dreadful commotion. By degrees, however, the obnoxious street grew to be so well peopled, and its inhabitants so firmly united, that their oppressors, more afraid of injustice, were more disposed to be just. At the next dinner they are unbound, the year after allowed to sit upright, then a bit of bread and a glass of water; till at last, after a long series of concessions, they are emboldened to ask, in pretty plain terms, that they may be allowed to sit down at the bottom of the table, and to fill their bellies as well as the rest. Forthwith a general cry of shame and scandal: "Ten years ago, were you not laid upon your backs? Don't you remember what a great thing you thought it to get a piece of bread? how thankful you were for cheese-parings? Have you forgotten that memorable era, when the lord of the manor interfered to obtain for you a slice of the public pudding? And now, with an audacity only equalled by your ingratitude, you have the impudence to ask for knives and forks, and to request, in terms too plain to be mistaken, that you may sit down to table with the rest, and be indulged even with beef and beer; there are not more than half a dozen dishes which we have reserved for ourselves: the rest has been thrown open to you in the utmost profusion; you have potatoes and carrots, suet dumplings, sops in the pan, and delicious toast and water, in incredible quantities. Beef, mutton, lamb, pork, and veal are ours; and if you were not the most restless and dissatisfied of human beings, you would never think of aspiring to enjoy them.'

Is not this, my dainty Abraham, the very nonsense, and the very insult which is talked to and practised upon the Catholics? You are surprised that men who have tasted of partial justice should ask for perfect justice; that he who has been robbed of coat and cloak will not be contented with the restitution of one of his