LIST OF TABLES. TABLE NO. 1. Analysis of trap-rock from New Jersey. 6. Analysis of limestones and resulting limes.. 7. Analysis of different limestones. 8. Analysis of different asphalts.. 9. Analysis of Trinidad asphalt... 10. Analysis of rock asphalts.... 11. Analysis of Mexican asphalt.. 12. Mechanical analysis of porphyry. 13. Chemical analysis of porphyry. 14. Analysis of Portland cements. 15. Analysis of natural cements.. 16. Requirements for fineness of Portland cements.. 17. Strength of cements of different fineness..... 18. Strength of ordinary and finely ground Portland cement. 23. Strength of cement with long-time sand and neat tests. 24. Requirements of tensile strength for cements..... PAGE 27 27 34 37 38 38 39 54 60 68 69 86 86 99 100 101 102 102 102 103 104 105 106 107 25, 26. Showing material required for one cubic yard of mortar. 27. Showing strength of mortar when immersed in salt water...... 28. Showing strength of mortar when immersed in and mixed with salt and fresh water... 110 111 112 29. Showing strength of Portland-cement mortar when immersed in and mixed with salt and fresh water.... 112 30. Showing strength of mortar when mixed with salt water.. 31-33. Showing effect of freezing and subsequent thawing on mortar.114, 116 34. Showing effect of freezing and subsequent thawing on concrete cubes 117 TABLE NO. PAGE 35. Showing strength of mortar after second mixing........... 118 36. Showing strength of briquettes made at different times after the mix ing of the mortar.... 119 37. Showing volume of concrete from certain mixtures.. 128 124 124 38. Showing voids in stone, gravel, and mixtures of both.... 46. Showing result of traction experiments at Atlantic Exposition..... 48. Showing effect of size of wheels and width of tire on tractive force... 158 49. Showing tractive force per ton according to London experiments. 159 50. Showing tractive force per ton according to different authorities... 51. Showing accidents to horses on London streets.... 159 52. Showing accidents to horses on different London pavements..... 161 161 . 162 54. Showing relative value of different paving materials.. 55. Showing comparative costs of different pavements.... 167 172 56. Showing increase of pavement mileage in different American cities... 173 57. Showing sizes of granite blocks used in American and European cities. 191 58. Showing sizes of stone blocks used in European cities.. 192 59. Showing crowns for street pavements..... 202 60. Showing methods of laying out cross-section of pavement. 218 61. Showing sizes of certain sands,...... 226 62. Showing sizes of sands used in different pavements 227 63. Showing cost per yard of repairs to asphalt pavements in different cities.... 246 64. Showing cost per yard for each year after expiration of guarantee in different cities..... .... 247 65. Showing analysis of different bricks.. 260 66. Showing loss by abrasion to bricks of different degrees of hardness... 266 67. Showing water evaporated from different bricks.... 271 68. Showing water absorbed by different bricks... 271 69. Showing results of different tests upon different bricks. 275 70. Showing condition of hard-wood pavements in London 298 71. Showing mileage of street-car tracks in American and European cities. 458 72, 73. Showing analyses of different asphalts..... 495, 496. 12. Cross-section of granite pavement on concrete base.. 199 13. Example of steep grade on asphalt-paved street in Pittsburg.. 14. Cross-section of asphalt pavement... 217 235 15. Showing plan and section of noiseless manhole-cover.. 249 16. Showing expansion-joint in asphalt pavement on Denver viaduct.. 17. Cross-section of a brick pavement ... 252 284 FIGURE 34. Another form of track-construction in Buffalo...... 35. Tie-construction of track, Department of Highways, Brooklyn.. PAGE 439 441 36. Concrete-beam construction, Department of Highways, Brooklyn..... 44i 37. Toronto track-construction.... 38. Sioux City track-construction... 39. Third Avenue Railway construction, New York.. 40. Detroit railway construction... 41. Cincinnati railway construction.... 42. Rochester iron-tie construction... 43. Rochester concrete-beam construction... 44. Clamp used in Rochester construction.. 45. Yonkers construction.... 46. Minneapolis constructiou.... 47. Track-construction recommended in granite pavement. 52. Curb set in concrete, granite pavement. 53 Section of concrete curb.. 54. Plan of stone sidewalk 55. Plan of brick sidewalk.. 56. Another plan of brick sidewalk... 57. Herringbone plan of brick sidewalk. 58. Section of cobblestone gutter.... 59. Section of cement-concrete gutter.... 60. Diagram of grades at a street-intersection.. 441 441 443 445 445 446 447 447 448 448 453 453 455 457 466 467 470 476 477 477 477 481 481 485 STREET PAVEMENTS AND PAVING MATERIALS. CHAPTER I. THE HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF PAVEMENTS. PRIMEVAL man had no pavements nor any use for them. His wants were few and easily satisfied. He knew of nothing outside of his own range of vision. Knowing but little, his desires were few and in almost every instance could be satisfied by the fruits of the soil or the results of the chase. But this could not continue; as the race increased and scattered over the then known world the different divisions settled down into communities or became nomadic tribes. Different localities produced different articles, and in their wanderings and communications with each other they became acquainted with their different products, and the spirit of interchange and commerce sprung up among them. Feelings of rivalry arose, producing wars, and there is no doubt that the commercial and warlike interests were most powerful in promoting exchanges between tribes and later between nations. At first tracks were established across the country, but as time went on these tracks grew to be paths, and the paths roads, and the roads developed into our modern highways, paved streets, and magnificent system of railroads. All of this, however, consumed a vast amount of time, and many centuries elapsed after the building of the first road before much similar work was undertaken or the modern boulevard completed. While war-chariots are mentioned in |