pathy thru an outline survey of subjects in all the great divisions of knowledge. A student with us, having half the work of his course specified in group requirements, concentrates his efforts thru at least three years continuous work in his major department and he is given an acquaintance in all the other main divisions of knowledge by group requirements in all these divisions.

With the object of the college of liberal arts to fix habits of mind and to make thinkers, it must be understood that the manner of doing work is even more important than the ground covered. Hence, the University of Missouri is taking an advanced step when it puts a definite premium, in extra credits, on the excellence of work done by students and a discount on work with a passing mark that is still inferior in quality. Our college faculty has sought the same end by the regulation, not yet applied, that a candidate for a degree may count only a proportion of credits of the lower grades. Further than this, the scientific grading system, based on the average work of college students, should be adopted, especially in the college of liberal arts. Our faculty, thru a committee, has been testing department reports by this principle of grading for two years. It has exerted a strong influence toward uniformity of grading and toward giving the student's work a rating that has a definite meaning.

Again, as the college stands for the student's personal development, special emphasis should be laid on the fact that the student in the college of liberal arts must work. This end should be sought primarily thru the skillful work of the teachers, but in support of the teachers our faculty has the regulation that

any student, who, in any semester, is reported as doing unsatisfactory work in more than half of his registered hours, will be dropped and any student who, in any semester, is reported as doing unsatisfactory work in more than one quarter of his registered hours should be placed on probation.

Furthermore, our examinations in the college of liberal arts are year examinations, with final examinations for graduation covering all the subjects taken in the major department. Again, in some of the large departments the questions for the examination for different sections of similar work are made up by the department faculty, as a committee, and the papers are examined by the instructors in the department who do not know whose paper they are examining, or the student of what instructor is being examined.

The work of the college, carried out earnestly to gain the chief ends of the college, will appeal to the student and arouse him to as serious effort. as the schedule of any other college. The universities should favor in every way the college of liberal arts toward the attaining of these ends. It is to the interest of our whole people, as well as of scholars, that the college of liberal arts should be enabled to do its peculiar work, distinct

from that of all the other schools. This interest is pointed out by Presi dent Lowell, quoted with approval by President Finley (North American Review, 1910, p. 436), in these words:

The college of the future has a great work to do for the American people—a college which can give freedom of thought, a breadth of outlook, a training for citizenship, which neither the secondary nor professional school in this country can give.

THE BUILDING UP OF PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION ON A
COLLEGIATE FOUNDATION FROM THE VIEWPOINT
OF THE PROFESSIONAL SCHOOLS

DAVID STARR JORDAN, PRESIDENT, LELAND STANFORD JUNIOR UNIVERSITY,
STANFORD UNIVERSITY, CAL.

[An Abstract]

In the early days of the development of the European universities worthy of the name there were four departments, philosophy, theology, law, and medicine. Philosophy and the subjects associated with it have in many cases since come to occupy the main attention of the universities; theology has taken a special path that does not concern us now; while medicine and law, after a period outside of the university, are again finding their true place in it. German universities have set the pace for the educational world and have retained their intimate association with the so-called professional studies. In England, the universities are not universities in fact but only a number of schools collected together, the examinations of which are given under the direction of university professors. The relations of these colleges to science have been ridiculous, while their relations to philosophy and general education have been very noble. Chemical laboratories are almost absent from the colleges of Oxford, and one that I saw there was not so large or as well equipped as the one in the little village of Palo Alto. The ideal of developing gentlemen by teaching them things that were perhaps cultural but not practical or useful has had much to do with the attitude of many of the English, who either do no work or work looking forward only to the time when its rewards will place them where they do not have to work. Engineering was the first truly modern profession because the foundation for it had to be laid soundly, and while a physician could perhaps hide his ignorance or mistakes and a lawyer get behind the intricacies of the law, the natural forces confronting the engineer had to be met by accurate knowledge, accurately applied, and the results were obvious to all. In England much of this teaching has been in the hands of the various city universities and has not been a part of the greater and older seats of learning.

In this country for many years the education of the lawyer and physician was most unsatisfactory. In law the student often read law in some offices where he handled minor cases and ran errands and gradually ac

quired some insight into the forms of legal procedure. The lectures given in the various law schools with which he at times supplemented his work, were, except where some rare mind filled him with inspiration, of little real value. In medicine the conditions were similar. There seemed to be no good way to give medical education, so physicians banded themselves together into the so-called proprietary medical schools. At first it was an organization founded upon love of the profession, but in many instances. an institution founded upon such love drifted gradually toward advertising its faculty in various ways. Besides, medicine became a most difficult profession, requiring years of expensive laboratory work in preparation for it. Not many years ago there was no science of bacteriology, no microscope, no understanding of the chemical processes of the body. Since the human body is the most complicated chemical machine known, the physician must know much biology, physiology, and chemistry in order to attempt to interfere with it. At best he can only hope to direct or control it, for the days of specific drug therapy of disease have largely gone by. Except for a few striking exceptions, such as the lethal effect of quinine upon the malarial organism, the most that can be done is to modify by drugs the natural body functions and reactions, by producing one effect, modify another. With medicine always upon the firing line of advance, depending upon all that has gone before and even penetrating into dark corners, it is especially important that it should be intimately associated with our universities. The foundation work required for it has become so much more elaborate and so expensive that only universities can properly handle it. The principal duty of the university is to set standards and in no other field of knowledge is this more important than in medicine.

About twenty years ago Johns Hopkins University Medical School was founded in Baltimore to further the teaching of medicine in the United States and bring it to the level of the German universities. One of the first requirements that it exacted from the prospective student was that he was to have a degree from the liberal-arts department of some accredited university. This brought the standard above any medical college in the country. This was the first step that was taken in this country to eliminate the proprietary medical school, and the other universities had to follow the lead of this action, until at the present time every reputable medical college in the country demands that the student have at least an education sufficient to understand what he is being taught.

Harvard, Cornell, Pennsylvania, Columbia, Washington University in St. Louis, have with others followed along the lines laid down by Johns Hopkins to bring the medical schools back into true university ways, for teaching medicine and law is a true university function. If the universities graduated only one hundred physicians or lawyers of the right stamp it would be better than to have a great number of poorly trained ones turned loose upon the community.

An education in the liberal arts is not sufficient foundation for any university to attempt to teach medicine upon. Chemistry, biology, physics, and German or French should be taught to the student who is about to enter upon a medical career before he enters a medical college. With this foundation and a four years' course in a first-class medical college he will be prepared to minister to the needs that are demanded of him.

The requisite preparation for the four years of medical instruction should be, then, three years of university work, about two-thirds of the time of which should go to the sciences upon which medicine is based and the languages which one needs to study medical literature, and about one-third to courses of liberal arts. In law about the same amount of basic preparatory work should be done before the three years of actual law study leading up to the Juris Doctor degree. Only so can the lawyer become an expert in justice, for that is what he should be. University training is practically requisite for the ordinary man in order to grasp the great basic principles of the law and to become a real expert in equity. Universities should recognize their duties to professional training and take back medicine and law and make the degrees of Doctor of Medicine and Doctor of Law correspond in university importance and in training with the Doctorate of Philosophy.

SOME PHASES OF UNIVERSITY EFFICIENCY

ALEXIS F. LANGE, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, BERKELEY, CAL.

"Lest we forget," we do well now and then to remind ourselves—and others that a university is not a formula of Pure Reason nor a soulless mechanism, run perhaps for revenue only, but a social institution. As such it consists, in any given instance, of a living group of human adults and near-adults functioning together as a social organ. Its members, with their co-operative plans and practices, belong to a definite day and generation of a particular people, which thru them especially expects to lead and be led, to safeguard its cultural identity, and, more or less rationally, to mold its own future. Only the dawn of the millennium can usher in a world university. Until then, whatever essential type-marks set off universities from other social agencies, each university is at least a national variant-if not a "sport" and even as such a variant need not be the twin of any other in order to function wisely and well. It follows, of course, that the directive ideas and ideals include those bearing particularly on the institutional as a phase of the national life. Ideally, an American university exemplifies American democracy, not only in its dealings with the world's heritage of knowledge and human aspirations and in training young men and women for making a life and a living on the highest plane, but also, and chiefly, in constituting an educational environment most

clearly and fully expressive of the faith in which the nation is built. Ideally, American academic citizenship conforms to the highest type of American citizenship in general. Ideally, the spirit of the university, university spirit, public spirit, patriotism, the spirit of social service, are only different aspects of the same thing.

While obvious, the implications of this organic conception will bear emphasis. One is that a university, like an individual, grows efficient as it ceases to "muddle along." It must know itself and its place in the body politic. The institutional sense due to use and wont needs to develop into the institutional consciousness that springs from insight into the laws of social progress and from the endeavor to organize and realize a correspondent system or hierarchy of aims. Another implication is, of course, increasingly aimful self-direction, which will involve more or less radical modification of the institutional adaptations of means to ends. which have come down from the past. And growing thus by self-directed outgrowing implies self-management. No university can be efficient in a state of tutelage.. Its conduct must be determined from within. Efficiency covers both being and doing. It is this sort of self-direction and selfmanagement that constitutes academic freedom.

Again, the university being a social organ, its attitude toward itself and the highest utilities of the nation cannot-from the viewpoint of efficient functioning-be that of either standpatter or revolutionist; but must be that of the practical evolutionist..

Lastly, just as according to Lowell a republic can be truly successful only if every citizen is in some measure a statesman and thinker, so a republic of letters cannot fully realize itself if university consciousness, if the self-directive force, if the evolutionary attitude, are attributes of only one man or of an oligarchy. The more efficaciously the whole system of university aims works in the mind and heart of each member of the university group, the more truly will the leaders be leaders and the sooner will the solution be found of the problem of keeping abreast with and in advance of the society of which the university forms a part. I say "in advance of," because no progress is possible if a university tries merely to satisfy a popular demand, instead of endeavoring to discover what is needed and then to persuade the older as well as the younger generation of contemporaries to want what they need. As compared with the schools below it, a university, it should be added, is in an exceptionally fortunate position to further that teamwork which is the ideal resultant of institutional consciousness, self-direction, and self-management, because the majority of its members are of age and can understand and attain to the attitude and conduct that square with university purposes, cultural, vocational, civic.

It is from this point of view and by the criteria immanent in the university as society's organ of leadership that efficiency must be tested.