respective towns, and each votes for the persons ne wishes to be elected. The manner of voting is generally by ballot. A ballot is a small piece of paper, on which are printed or written the name of the candidate, and the title of the office to be filled. The electors present their ballots to the person authorized to receive them, and by him they are deposited in a box. Another mode of voting, practised in some states, is viva voce, which means, by the living voice, the elector speaking the name of the person for whom he votes.

54. The election of candidates is decided either by a majority or plurality of the votes. Election by majority is when any person has a majority, or more than one half of all the votes given. An election by plurality is when the person elected has received more votes than any other can.. didate. The latter, it is believed, prevails in most of the states, especially in the election of the lower officers. It often happens, that, by the former, there is no election at the first trial, no one candidate having received a greater number of votes than all the rest; and the people sometimes find much difficulty in effecting a choice, as several trials become necessary. The latter mode, by plurality, is liable to this objection, that, when the people are divided upon numerous candidates, a person may be elected by a small number of votes, and therefore the interests or wishes of a majority of he people may not be represented.

CHAPTER VII.

To whom the Exercis of Political Power ought to be entrusted.

§ 55. To what class or portion of the citizens of a state political power shall be entrusted, is properly made the subject of express provision in the constitution; but owing

of voting. §54. What is election by majority? What by plurality? To what objection is each of these modes liable?

§ 55. What is the right of exercising political power called? § 56.

to a diversity of opinion among the people of this country respecting the right of suffrage, the qualifications of electors, as fixed by the constitutions of the several states, have been very unlike. The right of suffrage, called also the elective franchise, means the right of voting, or the right of a citizen to a voice in the election of officers, and in making or adopting the constitution, the political law of the state.

56. The American colonies, following the example of the parent country, restricted the right of suffrage to those who possessed a certain amount of property. After they became independent states, a similar restriction was adopted by the people in forming the several state constitutions. In general, none but freeholders were allowed the privilege either of holding public offices, or of voting. A freeholder is a man who holds a real estate in his own right, which he may transmit to his heirs. In some states the right was extended to those who possessed personal property to a considerable amount. The property qualification, however, has been nearly abolished in the United States. In most of the states, all free white male citizens, with few exceptions, enjoy the right of suffrage.

57. It is maintained by some, that those only who have property to be protected by law, and who are compelled to defray the expenses of the government, are justly entitled to a voice in it; that men of property, from their superior ad. vantages of acquiring education, are generally more competent than the poor to take a part in political affairs: also, that poverty and ignorance, which render a man unfit to be entrusted with political power, are most common among the vicious part of the community. If, therefore, the right of suffrage be enjoyed by all, without distinction, ignorant and unprincipled men may obtain control of the government.

§58. In favor of universal suffrage it is said, that all men have rights which need the protection of government, especially in a free government, where all are, or ought to be, possessed of equal privileges. The way to wealth is open

To what class of persons was the right of suffrage confined in the colonies? What is a freeholder? How far has the right of suffrage been extended? § 57. What are the reasons generally given in favor of a restricted suffrage? § 58, 59. What may be said in favor of uni

to every citizen; and the laws affect a man as certainly in acquiring property as in its actual possession. Besides, by the restriction of the right, many of the best citizens are denied a voice in the government; and the state also is deprived, in many cases, of the services of men who, for the want of property, cannot be elected to office, however distinguished they may be for their capability and integrity.

§ 59. The property qualification is still advocated by some of the most sincere friends of republican institutions. And it is doubtless true, that it is attended with some advantages. Public opinion, however, has decided in favor of an extended suffrage, as being more consistent with the prin ciples of free government. The former makes an unjust distinction between the rich and the poor; and it is by no means generally admitted, that it secures a greater degree of wisdom and virtue in the administration of the state, than universal suffrage. None will presume to declare that property itself either confers merit, or entitles its possessor to unequal privileges; and a restricted franchise, founded on this basis, certainly savors of aristocracy.

§ 60. By universal suffrage, however, it is not meant that this right must be indiscriminately enjoyed by all, without limit or qualification. This right, though invaluable to freemen, is liable to abuse, and needs to be wisely guarded. Hence females, to whom nature has assigned a more limited sphere of action, are excluded from a participation in public affairs. Age is an essential qualification. A person should also be free from constraint or control by others. Twenty. one years, the period at which men become free to act for themselves, and are presumed to have attained the requisite knowledge and maturity of judgment, is the age at which they are invested with this right. Foreigners also, who must be supposed to be ignorant of our institutions, and wanting in their attachment to them, are properly excluded. And persons who, by the commission of certain crimes, have proved themselves to be too corrupt to be safely trusted with political power, are justly denied the right of suffrage.

§ 61. Virtue and intelligence are the best safeguards to

versal suffrage? § 60. What classes of persons are properly excluded? § 61. What affords the best security to free institutions?

republican institutions. We cannot reasonably hope that our government will be long preserved, after the people shall have become too ignorant and too corrupt to act for the public good. A government ought therefore to guard the public morals, and to promote the general diffusion of useful knowledge, as the only sure means of its preservation. In accordance with this sentiment, most of the states of this union have adopted, or are maturing, systems of learning, by which the benefits of a practical education may be shared by all classes of the community. When these bene. fits shall be universally enjoyed, we may indulge the hope that our civil and religious liberties will be enduring.

CHAPTER VIII.

Legislative Power.—Organization and Division of the Legis

lature.

§62. THERE is in every state, a general legislative, or law-making power. The legislature is composed of two branches, a senate and house of representatives. The latter, or lower branch, is differently styled in different states, being called also the house of delegates, the assembly, the house of commons, and sometimes simply, the house. The legislature, or both branches united, are sometimes termed, general assembly, and general court.

§ 63. The house of representatives is the more numerous body, consisting, generally, of three or four times as many members as the senate. They represent more immediately the people of the several towns and counties in which they reside. In some of the states, one or more are elected in each town by the people to represent them in the legis lature; in other states, a certain number of representatives are apportioned to each county, according to its proportion of the whole number of the inhabitants of the state.

§ 62. How is the legislature of a state divided? § 63. How is the house of representatives composed? § 64. How long do representa

§64. Representatives are usually chosen for the term of one year; in a few of the states, they hold their offices for two years. They may be re-elected at the pleasure of the electors. Elections of representatives are made thus frequent, in order to ensure a faithful discharge of their duties. Were they elected for a very long term of years, or for life, they would be too independent of the people. Being permanently seated in power, they would feel less responsibility to their constituents, than when they may be removed from office at the expiration of every year. Hence, a short term is deemed necessary to guard the public interests.

§ 65. The qualifications of representatives, as is also their term of office, are designated by the constitution. To be eligible to this office, a man should be of such age as to have had opportunity to acquire that knowledge of public affairs which young men, at the moment of their majority, seldom possess. He ought also to have been. for a considerable time, a citizen of the United States, and a resident of the state long enough to have become acquainted with its govern. ment and general policy. Accordingly, the age of twentyfour or twenty-five years, citizenship, and residence in the state for a term of years, have been made indispensable qualifications in all the states. In some of them, they must also possess a freehold, or other taxable property.

§ 66. Senators represent larger districts, comprising, generally, one or more counties. The character of a senate is somewhat different from that of the house. It is a more select body, its members being generally chosen for their superior wisdom, and longer experience in public affairs. It is designed also to be a more stable and independent body. The term of office of its members is made longer than that of representatives, that in their conduct they may be less influenced by the fear of removal from office. In some of the states, this body is so organized, that a part only of its members go out of office every year. By this arrangement, there will always remain in the senate a large number who are experienced in legislation, and better qualified than new

tives in state legislatures generally hold their offices? Why is their term of office thus short? § § 65. What are the general qualifications of a representative? § 66. In what respects is the character of a