A grammar of the Greek language, for the use of schools and colleges, revised by J.R. Major

SYNTAX.1

THE ARTICLE.

1. The article, o, , Tò, is properly a demonstrative pronoun; and is used as such, in the elder language, by Homer, and, in imitation of him, by the later Epic Poets; as, ò yàp Baoiλñï xorwbeis, “for this (deity) being incensed against the king;” τà dάñoiva déxeobe, “ and receive this ransom.”

2. But in later Greek, and especially among the prose writers, the article is generally employed to mark emphasis or distinction, and loses its demonstrative force2; as, o πóλεμος οὐκ ἄνευ κινδύνων, ἡ δὲ εἰρήνη ἀκίνδυνος, war is not free from dangers, but peace is without danger" (here the article is put on account of the opposition of war and peace); ὁ Κῦρος πολλὰ ἔθνη κατεστρέψατο, “ the celebrated Cyrus subdued many nations” (here the article is emphatic).

3. When a proper name first occurs in prose, it is without the article (unless meant to be emphatic); but when it occurs the second time, it generally has the article3. This is called the usage of renewed mention. Thus, v Eevooŵv Ἀθηναῖος . . . . ὁ μέντοι Ξενοφῶν ἀνακοινοῦται Σωκράτει . . . . καὶ ὁ Σωκράτης συμβουλεύει αὐτῷ, there was Xenophon, an Athenian.... this Xenophon, however, confers with Socrates.... and he, Socrates, advises him.".

4. But the article must always be omitted before a proper name, when an additional substantive, with the article, is subjoined to the same for nearer definition; as, Kûpos, ò Twv Пeрo@v Bariλevs, "Cyrus, the king of the Persians;" Θῆβαι, αἱ ἐν Βοιωτίᾳ, “ Thebes, the city in Baotia.”

(1) The greater part of the rules which are common to the Greek and Latin languages are here omitted.

(2) But the prose usage, it must be remembered, is derived from the original demonstrative force of the article. Thus, ó Tóλeμos is strictly" that state of things called war;" and ǹ eipývn, “ that state of affairs termed peace." So ò Kûpos is, literally," that well-known Cyrus."

(3) Unless the interval be so extensive a one, that the mind does not readily recur to the individual as having been before mentioned. To this, however, there are several exceptions.

5. E very expression which does not merely indicate an object generally, but represents it as existing in a particular state or in a peculiar relation, is accompanied in Greek by the definite article; as, τον γέροντα αἰδεῖσθαι χρὴ, one ought to reverence an old man;” τῶν τοῦ βίου ἀγαθῶν μετέχειν δεῖ καὶ τὸν δοῦλον, “ even a slave ought to participate in the good things of life1."

6. The article is used in prose with the demonstratives OUTOs and ékeîvos; in which case the pronoun either precedes the article or follows the substantive; as, oûtos ó ávỳp, or ὁ ἀνὴρ οὗτος (not ὁ οὗτος ἀνὴρ), “ this same man.

7. The article is also added to the possessive pronoun, for the purpose of giving a more precise definition. Thus, euòs viòs is merely a son of mine," but ò éμòs viòs is

my son," who is already known from the context.

8. Adverbial expressions become adjectives by the accession of the article ; as, οἱ πάλαι ἄνθρωποι, "the early race of men;" ¿ μeтagù xpóvos, "the intervening time"."

9. The neuter of the article rò is joined also to infinitives, and forms in this way a species of verbal noun; as, τὸ πράττειν, “ the doing ;” τὸ καλῶς λέγειν, “ the speaking well 3."

10. The article is also combined with μèv and dè, and then has in some degree the force of a pronoun; as, oi pèv ἐς φυγὴν ἐτράποντο, οἱ δὲ ἔμειναν, “ these, indeed, turned themselves to flight, but those remained;" Toùs pèv éπývei, TOùs d'ékóλačev, “the former he praised, but the latter he punished."

(1) Literally," the one that is old;""the one that is a slave." (2) When a substantive is omitted, they supply the place of substantives; as, aupiov, "the morrow," supply uépa; and again, of πλησίον, “ neighbours,” supply ἄνθρωποι.

(3) Sometimes the article is joined to an entire clause; as, 'Eav τοῦτο βεβαίως ὑπάρξῃ, τότε καὶ περὶ τοῦ τίνα τιμωρήσεταί τις ἐκεῖνον TрÓTоv ééσTαι σKOTеiv," If this be firmly established, then will it be allowed us also to consider in what manner one shall punish that

monarch."

(4) So in the neuter, à μèv—Tà dè, “ partly—partly,” &c.

THE NOMINATIVE AND VERB.

1. A verb agrees with its nominative in number and person; as, ἐγὼ λέγω, " I say;” τούτω τω ἄνδρε ἡγησάσθην, "these two men thought;" oi Ocoì koλálovσi, “the gods punish."

2. A neuter plural, however, is generally joined with a singular verb1; as, aσтpa paíveтai, "stars appear;" Tavrá éotiv άyalà, "these things are good."

3. But when the neuter plural refers to living persons, the verb is often put in the plural also; because persons are for the most part considered separately by the mind, but things as forming a class. Thus, Tà Tếλη ¿TÉσXOVTO, the magistrates promised;” τοσάδε μὲν μετὰ Αθηναίων Ovη čoтρáтevov, "so many nations served along with the Athenians."

4. When the subject consists of several persons or things singly specified, and which follow the verb, the latter often stands in the singular; as, ἔστι καὶ ἐν ἄλλαις πόλεσιν aрxovтés Tе κai duos, "there are in other cities, also, both ἄρχοντές τε καὶ magistrates and a commons. Here, if apxovтes stood alone, the verb would necessarily be eioí.

دو

5. Collective nouns, on the contrary, that is, nouns singular which express multitude or number, have often their verb in the plural; as, τὸ στρατόπεδον ἀνεχώρουν, “ the army retired;” πολὺ γένος ἀνθρώπων χρῶνται τούτῳ, σε α large class of men use this.”

(1) This usage is more observed by the Attics than by the older writers in the Ionic and Doric dialects, and is frequently neglected by the Attics themselves.

(2) Sometimes we find even a singular verb following a masculine or feminine plural; as, vμvoi réλλerai,“ hymns arise,” Pind. Ol.11. 4; axeîtαι oμpaì μeλéwv, “the voices of songs resound," Id. Fragm.—In the Attic writers, however, this takes place only where the verb precedes; in which case, probably, the author had the whole in his mind, and explained or defined it afterward by the substantive, in the plural. Thus, dédokтai puyai, "exiles are decreed," Eurip.

Bacch. 1340.

(3) This construction occurs even in the genitive absolute; as, TOU σTÓNOV TλeóvTwv, Demosth. in Mid. 45.

6. A dual nominative is sometimes joined with a plural verb'; as, τὼ δὲ τάχ ̓ ἐγγύθεν ἦλθον, " they two quickly drew near;" appw λéyovoi, “both say.”

7. The nominative is often omitted when the verb itself expresses the customary action of the subject; as, σaλñíšeι, "the trumpeter sounds his trumpet," where o σaλtlyktηs is implied; éκýpuέe, “the herald made proclamation," where κήρυξ is implied.

8. When two or more substantives are connected by a conjunction, the verb which belongs to all, instead of being in the plural, is sometimes found to agree with one of these substantives, and usually with that one which is nearest to it, and the most important in the sentence; as, Σoì yàp ἔδωκε νίκην Ζεὺς Κρονίδης καὶ Ἀπόλλων, “ For unto thee has Jove, the son of Saturn, given victory, and Apollo."

9. Sometimes a nominative is put without a verb following, and is then called the nominative absolute; as, 'Ekeîvoι δὲ εἰσελθόντες, εἶπεν ὁ Κριτίας, “ They having entered, Critias said."

THE SUBSTANTIVE AND ADJECTIVE.

1. An adjective is often put in the neuter gender, without regard to the gender of the substantive which stands with it in the sentence, Xpμa being understood; and remains in the singular even when the substantive is in the plural2; as, οὐκ ἀγαθὸν ἡ πολυκοιρανίη, “ the government of the many is not a good thing;” μεταβολαί εἰσι λυπηρόν, “ changes are a sad thing."

(1) Sometimes, on the other hand, the dual of the verb is put with the plural nominative, even when more than two persons are signified. This occurs chiefly in the earlier Epic Poets, and is not found in the Tragedians and prose writers. Many scholars consider the passages in question corrupt, or think that they must be explained otherwise. The whole difficulty is removed, however, by regarding the dual as originally an old form of the plural, limited subsequently to the expression of two.

(2) In all such constructions as these, the substantive is regarded by the mind as representing merely some general class of things; and hence the adjective is put in the neuter gender.

2. An adjective of the masculine gender is often found with a feminine noun of the dual number; and under this rule are also included the pronoun, participle, and article1; as, ἄμφω τούτω τω πόλεε, “ both these cities;” δύο γυναῖκε épílovτe, "two women quarrelling;" Tà xeîpe, “the two hands."

3. An adjective is often put in a different gender from the substantive with which it stands, as referring to the person or persons implied by that substantive2; as, píλe TÉKVOV, “dear child," (Il. 22. 84.) spoken of Hector; Tékos άτρνTÍVη, "indefatigable offspring," (Il. 2. 157.) spoken of Minerva.

4. Hence a collective noun in the singular number, and of the feminine or neuter gender, is often accompanied by the adjective in the plural and masculine; as, exoμev tyv ἄλλην ὑπηρεσίαν πλείους καὶ ἀμείνους, “ we have the rest of the crews more numerous and skilful.”

5. Among the tragic writers, when a woman speaks of herself in the plural number, she uses the masculine; and the masculine is also employed when a chorus of women are speaking of themselves. Thus, oi πpoðvýσкovтes (Eurip.), where Alcestis speaks of herself; ктeιp' άкovσas (Eurip. Androm.), "I pitied, on having heard," where the chorus speak.

6. A substantive is often used as an adjective3; as, γλῶσσαν Ἑλλάδα ἐδίδαξε, “ he taught the Greek tongue.” 7. The substantive is often changed into a genitive plural'; as, οἱ χρηστοὶ τῶν ἀνθρώπων, “ the worthy ones among men,” for oi xpnoToi avoрwπоi, "worthy men."

(1) Hence it has been inferred that the dual of the adjective, pronoun, participle, and article had originally only one form; namely, the masculine.

(2) Grammarians call this synesis (oúveσis), i.e. an understanding of the person implied by the substantive.

(3) This is of very ordinary occurrence in our own language; as, sea-water, house-dog, &c."

(4) The substantive is here considered as a whole, and the adjective as a part.

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