TABLE NO. PAGE 35. Showing strength of mortar after second mixing.... 118 36. Showing strength of briquettes made at different times after the mix ing of the mortar....... 119 37. Showing volume of concrete from certain mixtures... 123 124 124 133 153 38. Showing voids in stone, gravel, and mixtures of both... 39. Showing voids in certain sands, stone, gravel, etc.......... 40, 41. Analysis of proposed material for Portland cement.. 42. Showing imports and home products of Portland cement... 43. Showing product and consumption of American cement.. 44. Showing methods of paying for street pavements.... 45. Showing average life of pavements in Europe.... 46. Showing result of traction experiments at Atlantic Exposition........ 157 47. Showing tractive force required to draw one ton on different streets according to Prof. Haupt....... 134 138 156 158 48. Showing effect of size of wheels and width of tire on tractive force... 158 49. Showing tractive force per ton according to London experiments... 159 50. Showing tractive force per ton according to different authorities..... 51. Showing accidents to horses on London streets.... 52. Showing accidents to horses on different London pavements... 53. Showing accidents to horses on different London pavements under different conditions...... 54. Showing relative value of different paving materials.. 55. Showing comparative costs of different pavements... 159 161 161 .. 162 167 .. 172 56. Showing increase of pavement mileage in different American cities... 173 57. Showing sizes of granite blocks used in American and European cities. 191 58. Showing sizes of stone blocks used in European cities.. 192 59. Showing crowns for street pavements...... 202 60. Showing methods of laying out cross-section of pavement.. 218 61. Showing sizes of certain sands,..... 226 62. Showing sizes of sands used in different pavements 227 63. Showing cost per yard of repairs to asphalt pavements in different cities...... ... 246 64. Showing cost per yard for each year after expiration of guarantee in different cities..... 247 65. Showing analysis of different bricks.. 260 66. Showing loss by abrasion to bricks of different degrees of hardness... 266 67. Showing water evaporated from different bricks.... 271 68. Showing water absorbed by different bricks.... 271 69. Showing results of different tests upon different bricks.. 70. Showing condition of hard-wood pavements in London.. 275 . 298 71. Showing mileage of street-car tracks in American and European cities. 458 72, 73. Showing analyses of different asphalts.... 495, 496 11. Plan of granite intersection, modern method.... 12. Cross-section of granite pavement on concrete base.. 13 Example of steep grade on asphalt-paved street in Pittsburg. 14. Cross-section of asphalt pavement.... .. 195 199 217 235 15. Showing plan and section of noiseless manhole-cover....... 249 16. Showing expansion-joint in asphalt pavement on Denver viaduct.. 17. Cross-section of a brick pavement 252 284 18. Cross-section of a broken-stone pavement. 347 FIGURE 34. Another form of track-construction in Buffalo...... 35. Tie-construction of track, Department of Highways, Brooklyn....... PAGE 439 441 36. Concrete-beam construction, Department of Highways, Brooklyn..... 441 37. Toronto track-construction... 38. Sioux City track-construction... 39. Third Avenue Railway construction, New York. 40. Detroit railway construction.... 41. Cincinnati railway construction.. 42. Rochester iron-tie construction.. 43. Rochester concrete-beam construction.... 44. Clamp used in Rochester construction.... 45. Yonkers construction..... 46. Minneapolis constructiou.. .... 47. Track-construction recommended in granite pavement.. 52. Curb set in concrete, granite pavement.. 53 Section of concrete curb.. 54. Plan of stone sidewalk 55. Plan of brick sidewalk... 56. Another plan of brick sidewalk.. 57. Herringbone plan of brick sidewalk.. 58. Section of cobblestone gutter... 59. Section of cement-concrete gutter.... 60. Diagram of grades at a street-intersection.. 441 441 443 445 445 446 447 447 448 448 453 453 455 457 466 467 470 476 477 477 477 481 481 485 STREET PAVEMENTS AND CHAPTER I. THE HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF PAVEMENTS. PRIMEVAL man had no pavements nor any use for them. His wants were few and easily satisfied. He knew of nothing outside of his own range of vision. Knowing but little, his desires were few and in almost every instance could be satisfied by the fruits of the soil or the results of the chase. But this could not continue; as the race increased and scattered over the then known world the different divisions settled down into communities or became nomadic tribes. Different localities produced different articles, and in their wanderings and communications with each other they became acquainted with their different products, and the spirit of interchange and commerce sprung up among them. Feelings of rivalry arose, producing wars, and there is no doubt that the commercial and warlike interests were most powerful in promoting exchanges between tribes and later between nations. At first tracks were established across the country, but as time went on these tracks grew to be paths, and the paths roads, and the roads developed into our modern highways, paved streets, and magnificent system of railroads. All of this, however, consumed a vast amount of time, and many centuries elapsed after the building of the first road before much similar work was undertaken or the modern boulevard completed. While war-chariots are mentioned in history as existing at as early a period as war itself, commercial commodities were transported in ancient times almost entirely on beasts of burden. Hence the slow growth for a long time of the demand for roads. All records of work done in the early life of the human race are indefinite, and much that ought to be history and founded upon fact is only conjecture. It is said that a little to the east of the Great Pyramid remains of a stone causeway a mile long have been discovered. This is supposed to be a portion of a road built by Pharaoh for the purpose of conveying stone or other material across the sand for the construction of the pyramid. As this pyramid is generally considered to have been built in the fourth dynasty, or about 4000 B.C., it is undoubtedly, if authentic, the oldest road on record. Another ancient boulevard is mentioned by historians which must have been built soon after, as these times are now considered. The city of Memphis is said to have been connected with the pyramids by a broad roadway, two leagues long, having a paved and well-kept driveway lined on both sides with temples, mausoleums, porticoes, monuments, statues, etc. In fact, according to descriptions it must have been the modern boulevard with all the accessories that the times and unlimited wealth would allow. The Carthaginians, however, are generally given the credit of being the first people to construct and maintain a general system of roads. This African city had sprung up about 600 B.C. and by its growth and enterprise became a rival of the Roman Empire across the Mediterranean. Rome endured this rivalry for a time, but at last she issued that famous edict, Carthago delenda est, which resulted in the invasion of Africa and the destruction of Carthage B.C. 146. The Romans without doubt appreciated the benefit of improved highways for the rapid mobilization of troops, for they immediately took up the practice of the Carthaginians, and road-building was always one of the features of their subsequent conquests. It is claimed that in Great Britain alone they constructed 2500 miles of roads. The Appian Way was built by Appius Claudius about 300 B.C., and the Flaminian Way some years later. These roads were prac |