tions.

Smith strengthened the fort in 1608, trained the watch regularly and exercised the company every Saturday. No organized opposition to the white settlement appeared during the first few years, though the Indians manifested their dissatisfaction in the arrest of Smith, whom they would have summarily put to death but for the intercession of the chief's daughter. But in 1622, under

We have but to look at our record to see that, from the beginning, we have excluded a very large proportion of our own people from all participation in affairs of government, and we have never accused ourselves of exercising unjust powers or undue authority. This fact strengthens the belief that there is a source of power which does not lie in the people at alla “higher power," if you please. The Declaration of Independence conforms to Opechancanough, they attacked the setthis view, in affirming that men are endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable rights," and in appealing to the "Supreme Judge of the World," "with a firm reliance on the protection of Divine Providence."

III.

In order to determine whether our Philippine policy is anti-American, we must examine the testimony of American histcry, and see the record that Americans have made for themselves in their treatment of subject people in our own country.

Virginia and New England may fairly be taken as representative of the colonies up to the time of the Revolution, in so far as the Indian population is concerned.

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Patents to the London Company and to the Plymouth Company were issued in 1606 by King James I., authorizing them possess and colonize that portion of North America lying between the thirtyfourth and forty-fifth parallels of north latitude." What legal rights or privileges James had in America were based wholly on the discoveries made by English navigators. Rights of the native inhabitants were not considered in the granting of these patents, nor in the subsequent colonization.

The London Company colonized Virginia and the Plymouth Company and its successors colonized New England. In both cases landings were effected and settlements begun without consulting the people that inhabited the country.

As to Virginia, among the early acts of the Jamestown colony, under the lead of Captain Smith, was the procuring of food from the Indians by trading with them, and at the same time fortifying the new settlement against Indian depreda

ness.

tlers, killed several hundred of them, and devastated a good many plantations. They were finally beaten back by the whites, many of them being unmercifully slaughtered, and the rest driven into the wilderTwenty-two years later, under the lead of the same chief, another war broke out, lasting two years, causing much loss of life and property on both sides, and resulting in the utter defeat of the Indians and the cession by them of tracts of land to the colonists. This policy was pursued to the end of the colonial period.

The Plymouth colony early sent Captain Standish, with a few men, to confer with the natives and ascertain, if possible, the state of their feelings in regard to the white settlement; but the Indians eluded him and he learned nothing. The second year after this reconnoissance Canonicus, king or chief of the Narragansets, by way of showing how he felt about it, sent to the Plymouth people a bundle of arrows tied with the skin of a rattlesnake. As an answer to this challenge, the skin was stuffed with powder and bullets and returned. These exchanges of compliments opened the way for a peace treaty between the settlers and several tribes; but some of the chiefs were suspicious of the whites and formed a conspiracy to kill them off. The scheme coming to the knowledge of the colonists, it was frustrated by Standish and his company, who treacherously killed two chiefs. A treaty of peace with the Narragansets soon followed this occurrence, and it remained in force until the Wampanoags, weary of encroachments on their lands by the whites, made war on them under the leadership of King Philip, in 1675.

Among the incidents of that war, and as showing the temper of the colonists, may be mentioned the destruction of the Narraganset fort and the subsequent capt

ure and treatment of Philip. The fort to this subject race in our new territorial sheltered about 3,000 Narragansets, most- acquisitions we shall now see.

The region bounded on the north by the Great Lakes, on the east by the Alleghany Mountains, on the south by the Ohio River, on the west by the Mississippi, out of which have grown the States of Ohio, Michigan, Wisconsin, Illinois, and Indiana, had been claimed under their charters by Virginia, New York, Connecticut, and Massachusetts, but they ceded their claims to the United States. The country so ceded was our first territorial acquisition, and became known as the Northwest Territory. A government was provided for it under the ordinance of 1787, and President Washington, in 1789, appointed Gen. Arthur St. Clair its governor. The various tribes of Indians inhabiting that part of the country objected to the jurisdiction of the whites, just as some of the Filipinos have done in the Philippine Islands, and they made war on the whites, under Michikiniqua, chief of the Miamis, as the Filipinos have done under Aguinaldo, chief of the Tagals.

ly women and children. It was surprised during a snow-storm, the palisades and wigwams were fired, and the Indians were driven forth by the flames to be either burned, suffocated, frozen, butchered, or drowned in the surrounding swamp. History says that "500 wigwams were destroyed, 600 warriors killed, 1,000 women and children massacred, and the winter's provisions of the tribe reduced to ashes." "The government set a price of 30s. per head for every Indian killed in battle, and many women and children were sold into slavery in South America and the West Indies." Towards the last, Captain Church, the noted Indian fighter, headed an expedition to find Philip and destroy the remainder of the Wampanoags. Philip was hunted from place to place, and at last found in camp on Aug. 12, 1676. The renegade Indian who betrayed the Narraganset camp led Captain Church to the camp of Philip. The attack was made at night, while the Indians were asleep. Philip, in attempting to escape, was recog- Under date of Oct. 6, 1789, President nized by an Indian ally of the whites and Washington forwarded instructions shot dead as he stumbled and fell into Governor St. Clair, in which he said: the mire. His body was dragged forward, "It is highly necessary that I should, and Church cut off his head, which as soon as possible, possess full informawas borne on the point of a spear to tion whether the Wabash and Illinois Plymouth, where it remained twenty Indians are most inclined for war years exposed on a gibbet. According to the colonial laws, as a traitor, his body was drawn and quartered on a day that was appointed for public thanksgiving.

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peace. . . You will, therefore, inform the said Indians of the disposition of the general government on this subject, and of their reasonable desire that there should be a cessation of hostilities as a prelude to a treaty. . . . I would have it observed forcibly that a war with the Wabash Indians ought to be avoided by all means consistently with the security of the frontier inhabitants, the security of the troops, and the na

With this policy steadily pursued to the end, when the time came for Americans themselves to turn upon their oppressors, there was little left of the Indian question in New England and Virginia, or in any of the States; but, with the Declaration of Independence, the tional dignity. . . . But if, after manifestformation of the federal Union, and the establishment of a national government for the whole country, our Indian troubles were confined chiefly to territory belonging to the Union, regions acquired after the Union was formed, and, hence, national territories under the sole jurisdiction of the national government, The Indians were most inclined for though inhabited by Indians, whose rights war, as the Tagals have been, and a good to the soil had never been questioned. deal of hard fighting, extending over five What has been our policy with respect years, was done before they were brought

ing clearly to the Indians the disposition of the general government for the preservation of peace and the extension of a just protection to the said Indians, they should continue their incursions, the United States will be constrained to punish them with severity."

to terms in a treaty. The battle at Miami Village, Sept. 30, 1790, between about 1,800 Americans under General Harmar, and a somewhat larger body of Indians under various chiefs, resulted in a victory for the Indians, with a loss of 120 men killed and 300 wigwams burned. Another pitched battle was fought near the same place the next year. The Indians were again victorious, and the American loss was more than half the army631 killed and 263 wounded. On Aug. 20, 1794, General Wayne, with 900 United States soldiers, routed the Indians in a battle near Miami Rapids, and a year later a treaty of peace was concluded, by the terms of which nearly the whole of Ohio was ceded by the Indians to the United States.

It will be observed that with five years of war we had got no farther west than Ohio. And these battles with the Indians in the Miami Valley were more bloody than any ever fought by American armies with white men.

Seminole, War our armed conflicts with Indian's have been mostly in the West, on territory which we acquired by purchase from France and by cession from Mexico in concluding a two years' war with that country.

Between 1846 and 1866 there were some fifteen or twenty Indian wars or affairs, in which it is estimated that 1,500 whites and 7,000 Indians were killed.

In the actions between regular troops and Indians, from 1866 to 1891, the number of whites killed was 1,452; wounded, 1,101. The number of Indians killed was 4,363; wounded, 1,135.

Our Indian wars have been expensive as well as bloody. It is estimated by the War Department that, excluding the time covered by our wars with Great Britain (1812-14), and with Mexico (1846-48) and with the Confederate States (186165), three-fourths of the total expense of the army is chargeable, directly or indirectly, to the Indians; the aggregate thus chargeable is put at $807,073,658, and this does not include cost of fortifications, posts, and stations; nor does it include amounts reimbursed to the several States ($10,000,000) for their expenses in wars with the Indians. The Indian war pension account in 1897 stood at $28,201,632.

Except when engaged in other wars, the army has been used almost entirely for the Indian service, and stationed in the Indian country and along the frontier.

This long and bloody Indian war did not end our troubles in the Northwest. The Indians confederated under Tecumseh in 1811, and they were routed at the battle of Tippecanoe by General Harrison. This practically terminated Indian hostilities in the Northwest Territory, but Tecumseh stirred up resistance among the Creeks and their allies in our new acquisitions south of the Ohio, known as the Southwest Territory. The rebellion there began with the massacre at Fort Mims, on Aug. 30, 1813, in the Such in general outline is Americanism Creek Nation, and ended with the battle as it has consistently exhibited itself in of Tohopeka, on March 27, 1814, where the policy followed by this country at the the Indians were defeated by troops under only junctures which are comparable to General Jackson. About 1,000 Creek the Philippine situation at the present warriors were engaged at Tohopeka, and more than half of them (550) were killed. Seven fierce battles were fought during the continuance of this brief war, with an aggregate loss to the Indians of 1,300 killed and an unknown number of wounded.

The Black Hawk War, in 1832, cost the lives of twenty-five Americans and 150 Indians.

day. If it amounts to imperialism, then, indeed, are we a nation of imperialists without division.

But let us get closer to the subject. The case presented by the anti-imperialists against the administration is almost exactly paralleled in the history of Florida. Spain's title to the Philippines was as good as that by which she claimed Florida, for it had the same basis-the right of discovery; and her right to cede and convey her title was as perfect in the one case as in the other. In both instances, the Since the conclusion of the Florida, or inhabitants were, by international law,

The Florida War began in 1835 and lasted seven years, ending with the final defeat of the Indians.

territory. Americans govern by majorities-majorities of those who, by previous constitutional and statutory provisions, are authorized to govern, and whose administration of public affairs has been, as far as practicable, determined in advance by properly constituted authorities.

transferred with the land on which they As to matters of government, Americandwelt.* Filipinos inhabited the Philippine ism means American rule in American Islands when Magellan discovered them in 1521, and when Villalobos, a few years later, "took possession of the group and named it in honor of King Philip II., of Spain," and they were there in 1898, when Spain ceded the archipelago to the United States in consideration of closing a war and the payment of $20,000,000 in money. The Seminole Indians inhabited Florida when that region was discovered by the Spanish navigators, and they were there in 1819-21, when Spain ceded the country to the United States in consideration of removing a just cause of war on our part, and a stipulation to settle claims against Spain to the amount of $5,000,000.

The treaty for Florida was concluded in 1819, but was not ratified by Spain till the second year thereafter; a territorial government was established on March 30, 1822, the President in the mean time governing the Territory twenty years, the State being admitted on March 3, 1845. During the territorial period the army was needed there most of the time to suppress disorders in which the Indians were almost always mixed; and in 1835 the war with the Seminoles began. Andrew Jackson was President during the first two years of this war; it continued all through Van Buren's term, and extended a year or more into that of Harrison and Tyler. To suppress this rebellion of Osceola and his allies, the army, consisting of regulars, militia, and volunteers, was employed seven years.

President McKinley is doing in the Philippines just what was done by President Jackson and his successors in Florida, and he is doing it more humanely. Were they imperialists?

Beginning with the Pilgrims' compact, we have grown a republic, removing or surmounting all obstacles in the way of our development, until now we are in the forefront of nations. We have liberated the negro and given him the ballot. The Indians, of whom there are about as many in the country as ever, have to their credit in the national treasury a trust fund amounting to about $25,000,000; they are dissolving their tribal relations; the adults, under government supervision, are learning to work at farming and other useful callings, their children are in government schools, and all are in process of citizenization. Government Indian schools now number about 150, with nearly as many contract schools. Indian education is costing the government about $2,000,000 a year.

The trouble in the Philippines has been occasioned by Aguinaldo and his associates. Americans are there of right, and they ask nothing of the natives but to be peaceable, to obey the laws, and to go ahead with their business; they will not only be protected in every right, but will be aided by all the powerful influences of an advanced and aggressive civilization. See ACQUISITION OF TERRITORY; ANNEXED TERRITORY, STATUS OF; ANTI-EXPANSIONISTS.

Imports. See COMMERCE.

Impost Duties. The first impost duties laid on the English-American colonies were in 1672, when the British Parliament, regarding colonial commerce as

* American Supreme Court, in the case of the American Insurance Company vs. Canter, 1 Peters, 511, referring to the territory held by a conqueror, awaiting the conclusion of "If it be ceded by the treaty, the a proper source of public revenue and acquisition is confirmed, and the ceded territory becomes a part of the nation to which it is annexed. On such a transfer

a treaty, says:

of territory, the relations of the inhabitants with their former sovereign are dissolved, and new relations are created between them and the government which has acquired their territory. The same act which transfers their country transfers the allegiance of

those who remain in it."

taxation, passed a law imposing a duty on sugar, tobacco, ginger, cocoanut, indigo, logwood, fustic, wool, and cotton, under certain conditions. It was enacted that the whole business should be managed and the imposts levied by officers appointed by the commissioners of customs in England, under the authority of

the lords of the treasury. This was the the action of Parliament. In November, first attempt at taxation of the colonies 1747, Commodore Knowles, while in Boswithout their consent.

alarmed, he withdrew to the castle. Knowles offered a company of marines to sustain his authority, and threatened to bombard the town if his officers were not released. The populace declared that the governor's flight was abdication. Matters became so serious that the influential citizens, who had favored the populace, tried to suppress the tumult. The Assembly ordered the release of the officers, and Knowles sent back most of the impressed men. The authorities attributed the outbreak to "negroes and persons of vile condition." This was the first of a series of impressments of American citizens by British officers which finally led to the War of 1812-15.

ton Harbor, finding himself short of men, The first of such duties established by sent a press-gang into the town one mornthe United States was for the purpose ing, which seized and carried to the vesof restoring the public credit. On April sels several of the citizens. This violence 18, 1782, the Congress voted “that it be aroused the populace. Several of the naval recommended to the several States as officers on shore were seized by a mob and indispensably necessary to the restoration held as hostages for their kidnapped counof public credit, and to the punctual trymen. They also surrounded the town and honorable discharge of the public house, where the legislature was in sesdebts, to invest the United States, in sion, and demanded the release of the Congress assembled, with power to levy impressed men. The governor called out for the use of the United States" certain the militia, who reluctantly obeyed. Then, duties named upon certain goods imported from any foreign port. Under the provisions of the Articles of Confederation, the unanimous consent of the States was necessary to confer this power upon the Congress. This was the first attempt to lay such duties for revenue. The necessity was obvious, and all the States except Rhode Island and Georgia agreed to an ad valorem duty of 5 per cent. upon all goods excepting spirituous liquors, wines, teas, pepper, sugars, molasses, cocoa, and coffee, on which specific duties were laid. The Assembly gave, as a reason for its refusal, the inequality of such a tax, bearing harder on the commercial States, and the inexpediency and danger of intrusting its collection to federal officers, unknown and not accountable to the State governments. A committee of the Congress, with Alexander Hamilton as chairman, was appointed to lay the proposition before the several States and to urge their acquiescence. They sent it forth with an eloquent address, which appealed to the patriotism of the people. The measure was approved by the leading men of the country, and all the States but two were willing to give Congress the desired power. "It is money, not power, that ought to be the object," they said. "The former will pay our debts, the latter may destroy our liberties." See ComMERCE; INTERNAL REVENUE.

Proofs of the sufferings of American seamen from the operations of the British impress system were continually received, and so frequent and flagrant were these outrages, towards the close of 1805, that Congress took action on the subject. It was felt that a crisis was reached when the independence of the United States must be vindicated, or the national honor would be imperilled. There was ample cause not only for retaliatory measures against Great Britain, but even for war. A non-importation act was passed. It was resolved to try negotiations once more. William Pinkney, of Maryland, was appointed (May, 1806) minister extraordinary to England, to become associated Impressment. In 1707 the British Par- with Monroe, the resident minister, in liament, by act, forbade the impressment negotiating a treaty that should settle all of seamen in American ports and waters disputes between the two governments. for privateering service, unless of such He sailed for England, and negotiations sailors as had previously deserted from were commenced Aug. 7. As the Ameriships-of-war. The custom had been a can commissioners were instructed to source of annoyance and complaint for make no treaty which did not secure the several years, and was continued despite vessels of their countrymen on the high