schools, which in a short time rivalled those of Palestine in celebrity. The already diminished power of the head men of Tiberias could not long prevent their overgrown schools from branching off into smaller ones; and at length Zippor and Cesarea began to strive with Tiberias itself for the supremacy, which the latter only retained by continuing to be the abode of the Nasi and consequently the seat of the grand tribunal. The most distinguished individuals of the time were Chanina at Tiberias and Hosea at Cesarea, who are said to have put the finishing hand to the Mishnah as it now exists.

The office of Nasi, which it will be perceived had become hereditary, passed from Gamaliel into the hands of his son Judah. It now retained its secular character alone, and was consequently no longer an object of jealousy to the rabbies, who on their part would not suffer themselves to be controlled by the Nasi. They freely gave their advice and directions to the new ruler, who was young and inexperienced at the time of attaining his dignity, and whose power rested solely on his birth, wealth, and elevated position. In the court he was merely presiding judge; the task of examining causes and reporting the results was resigned to his rabbies, whose salaries he paid out of the fees which he himself collected. This last procedure was a source of great dissatisfaction to them, and at length one Jose of Maon took it upon himself to denounce it as an instance of tyrannical oppression. The Nasi cited him before the court for his bold language, and he fled; but on having his safety guaranteed by two men of standing, Jochanan and Simon ben Lakes, he consented to appear before Judah. The latter, after having put a few questions to him, and received some very laconic and rude answers, dismissed him, without assigning any punishment to his offence. So much were circumstances altered since the time of his powerful grandfather.

The two men Jochanan and Simon ben Lakes above mentioned were intimate friends and strenuous opposers of the Nasi's power. Simon, who in his youth had served as a soldier, and who brought to the employment of teacher all the daring of his former vocation, publicly declared that the Nasi ought to be subjected to corporal punishment for misconduct, like other offenders. The enraged Judah determined to revenge himself on the author of this insult to his dignity. But the day after his bold speech, Simon did not

make his customary appearance in the assembly; and the Nasi accordingly inquired of his friend Jochanan,who sat silent and sorrowful in his place, the reason of Simon's absence. He replied by requesting the Nasi to accompany him on a visit to Simon, for the purpose of effecting a reconcil. iation. Simon received the Nasi with every outward demonstration of respect, but at the same time stoutly expressed his determination to speak his mind on all occasions with perfect freedom. And in truth whenever he felt himself called upon to denounce abuses, he was by no means backward in keeping his promise: thus he publicly censured the Nasi on his accepting a box of gold as a present from a heathen, and again when he appointed an ignorant man to the office of public instructor. On the latter occasion, Judah ben Nachman, whose duty it was to interpret his lectures to the people, openly denounced the transaction before the whole congregation. The Nasi was unable to retaliate, as his power was now by no means equal to the influence acquired by the rabbies.

Jochanan and Simon ben Lakes both enjoyed an enviable reputation. The former was universally admired for his fine personal appearance, his extraordinary learning, and the power imputed to him of working miracles. It appears that he survived his friend, and obtained the dignity of Hacham in the tribunal. As the Nasi was entirely destitute of energy, he remained almost the only authority in matters of rabbinical law. He was a great stickler for forms, and on the occasion of installing two of his most deserving disciples, Ami and Assi, into the responsible office of judge, he gave way completely to his fondness for parade and ceremony. He was notwithstanding a strict rabbinist, and lived in as secluded a manner as Jochanan ben Zaccai, whom he took for his model, and whose stern maxims of morality were continually on his lips. His severity and bitterness were chiefly directed against the corrupted manners of the times, against extravagance and luxury, and against the worldlymindedness of the Babylonians which was daily gaining ground in Palestine. The school at Cesarea had already attained some degree of celebrity, and was now under the direction of R. Abhuhu, a man much respected by the Roman authorities.

About this time the Jerusalem Talmud was composed, the authorship of which is attributed by Maimonides to Jocha.

nan.

The correctness of this statement however is denied by Jost, who affirms that its author's name is unknown. It is composed, as we have already observed, of the Mishnah itself and all that had been adduced in its illustration since the time of its composition. The publication of this work, by facilitating the acquisition of knowledge, and rendering the congregations less dependent on their teachers, may have contributed with other causes to hasten the decline of the school of Tiberias, which maintained its pre-eminence only about half a century longer. The wars with which the eastern world now became convulsed, especially that between the Romans and Persians, broke up the communication between different parts of the country, and made it necessary that each convocation should have a small school of its own. Ami and Assi, who were the last men of note among the rabbies of Palestine, appear to have flourished about the middle of the fourth century of the Christian era.

HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE RABBINICAL SCHOOLS IN BABYLONIA, DOWN TO THE COMPILATION OF THE BABYLONIAN TALMUD.

The Babylonian Jews, as they uniformly style themselves in their writings, were those who dwelt on both banks of the Euphrates, and in the country included between that river and the Tigris, since called the Arabian Irak. They gave themselves also, in contradistinction to the Palestine or Occidental Jews () the name of Orientals () or Exiles (2). They at first formed a small colony subject to the Parthians, which was afterwards considerably increased in numbers by the accession of those who fled from Palestine during the persecution under Trajan and Hadrian. Living in great measure among strangers, and being not so strictly bred up as their brethren in Palestine, theywere before the introduction of rabbinism, and indeed for a considerable period after, much less decidedly separated from the other nations of the East. They did not keep themselves entirely apart from their neighbors by peculiarities either of dress or of food, and even intermarriages with them were not wholly forbidden. There was naught in fact

* Allg. Geschichte d. Israel. Volkes, vol. 2, p. 143.

but those strong barriers to amalgamation which in the East are presented by differences of race, together with some of the observances inherited from their forefathers, particularly the worship of the true God, to constitute them a separate people.

They had a ruler elected by themselves, called the Resh Glutha (13 87,) or chief of the emigrants, whose office was exclusively secular, the appeal in religious matters being constantly made to Palestine. The standard of learning among the Babylonians was for a long time extremely low, their teachers consisting of wanderers from Palestine or of such native scholars as had prosecuted their studies in that country. The school of Tiberias employed every practicable means to maintain its supremacy undisturbed." It threw great difficulties in the way of the emigration of its able men to Babylonia, by subjecting to a severe examination such as sought to establish themselves in that country, and by seldom granting them unrestricted authority, which even if conceded was liable at any time to be recalled. It also endeavored to retain in Palestine and furnish employment there to all the most promising among their Babylonian pupils. The feelings of dissatisfaction created among the colonists by such a course of policy were further aggravated, and the ties connecting them to the mother country proportionably weakened, by the large amount of tribute exacted from them, and the dangers and inconveniences resulting, especially in time of war, from the constant journeyings to and fro required for the purpose of keeping up the communication which their dependent condition rendered necessary. This state of things, however, was suffered to exist only so long as there was a dearth of competent teachers in Babylonia. When once firmly established, the schools at Nisibis, Nahardea, and Naharpakod were soon able to furnish rabbies in sufficient numbers to render practicable the assertion of an independence so long and earnestly desired by both prince and people, and for which the publication and spread of the Mishnah had already prepared the way.

The Resh Glutha, in imitation of the Nasi of Tiberias, instituted a high court of justice, and placed himself at its head. The first of these rulers of whom any notice has descended to us was Hona, a contemporary of Judah the holy. His power was despotic, and his office appears to have already become hereditary. The authority of his tribunal

was recognized even by the Jews of Palestine ; but in denying it the right of enforcing obedience to its decrees, they deprived it of all real influence.

At the period when Ardshir founded the kingdom of modern Persia (A. 1), 230), the Jews were in a prosperous condition. Their numbers were considerable; and besides being in the exclusive possession of many small towns, they formed a good part of the population of the principal cities, as Ctesiphon, Borsippon, Seleucia, the newly built Ardshir, and others. Several Babylonians were now pursuing their studies at Tiberias under Rabbi Judah, among whom were Haya and his nephew Abha Aricha. The latter returned to his native land with full authority, and went to Nehardea, whither Samuel Arioch, a learned physician and astronomer who had been unable to establish himself at Tiberias, had already preceded him, and was now teaching very successfully, with the knowledge and approval of Hona's successor, Mar Ukba. Abba, however, notwithstanding the friendly reception he experienced from Samuel, did not choose to remain at Nehardea; but proceeded to Sura, (called also Mata Mehasia), where he opened a new school, which in the number of its pupils soon excelled every other. The study of the law was the sole object pursued, and the novelty of many of the precepts contained in the Mishnah, which was first brought into Babylonia by Arioch, created universal interest. Samuel showed himself by no means favorably disposed towards the new institution, and the two schools became zealous rivals of each other's fame and popularity, and frequently disagreed in their decisions. The Resh Glutha acknowledged both, and formed of them two co-ordinate courts. Samuel appears to have taken upon himself more especially the decision of ethical questions, while Rabh* attended chiefly to matters of domestic policy. Both schools, notwithstanding their wide difference of opinion on many other points, were agreed in regarding their authority as tantamount to that of the Nasi of Tiberias, and in determining to shake off the spiritual yoke of Palestine; they even went so far as to forbid all intercourse with its schools, so that those who desired to visit them were compelled to do so by stealth.

*This title, equivalent to the Rabbi of Palestine, was bestowed par excellence upon Abba, as was that of Rabbi upon Judah the holy.