FIGURE 5.-Comparison of pH values for lakes in the Adirondack Mountains area of New York from 1930 to 1975. (Data from Schofield, 1976.)

pH during snowmelt runoff, at which time the acid materials accumulated in the snowpack tend to concentrate into a smaller volume of water, cause high mortality of eggs. Second, higher concentrations of dissolved aluminum accompany reduced pH. Aluminum oxides are known to coat fish gills and cause loss of respiratory capacity, increasing stress on the population.

In addition, many scientists think the food supply of the fish may be under stress at reduced pH. Many microscopic organisms which convert land-derived organic material to edible forms cannot survive at pH values less than 5. Because most streams and lakes at higher elevations require land-derived organic matter as the primary food source for higher organisms, the disruption of the organisms that reduce the leaves and debris from the land to edible form could be particularly disastrous to aquatic life. To date, there is only slight evidence for foodchain disruption as a major effect, but studies in this area have been underway only a short time and may yield definitive information in the near future.

The economic damages from acid rain have not been studied thoroughly enough to place dollar amounts on specific instances, but several actual or potential effects have been identified.

The loss of native fish populations due to cidification of lakes in the United States and Canada means a loss of recreational value in the affected areas and a consequent loss of tourism.

• Any disruption of normal food chain relations, as is now being speculated as the cause or loss

10

1930's

0

4

FIGURE 6.- Frequency distribution of pH and fish population status for 40 high-elevation lakes surveyed in the 1930's and again in 1975 (Schofield, 1976).

of some fish populations, could extend to terrestrial ecosystems as well. Such disruption could cause losses of valuable plant and animal species.

• Forest productivity may be reduced directly from damage to leaves and indirectly from increased susceptibility to diseases. Moreover increased acidity tends to leach important nutrients such as potassium and calcium from the soil, leading ultimately to reduced fertility.

• Acid precipitation or the interaction of acidforming gases with dew is causing damage to manmade artifacts such as statues, monuments, and historic structures here and throughout Europe. Corrosion of metals and erosion of concrete and stone may be accelerated, thus threatening damage to buildings, bridges, highways, and homes.

• Heavy metals which could be toxic to human beings may be leached from soils and rocks by acid precipitation. Although heavy metal concentrations in water supplies are generally well below safe drinking water levels, toxic concentrations of some, such as lead, have been found in water standing in pipes for only a few hours.

In contrast, some economic benefits could be realized. Nitrogen and sulfur, which are the primary sources of the acidity in precipitation are plant nutrients. Studies have shown that the nitrogen in precipitation is a major component of the annual nitrogen budget of forested watersheds in many parts of the United States. Some soils, particularly in tropic latitides, are deficient in sulfur. Acid rain could stimulate productivity in such areas.

It is apparent that resolution of the many unanswered questions about acid precipitation is a major challenge not only to hydrologists but to plant pathologists, soil scientists, bacteriologists, and other specialists. Planners and managers cannot act in an informed manner to alleviate the

potential damage from acid rain on the environ

ment until a better understanding of the acid-rain phenomenon has been gained.

References

Bryson, R. A., and Hare, F. K., 1974, World Survey of Climatology, v. II, Climates of North America: New York, Elsevier.

Glass, G., and Brydges, T., 1981, Revised Draft of Interim Report of the Aquatic Impact Assessment Work Group, U.S./Canada Air Quality Agreement: Unpublished report, May 12, 1981. Likens, G. E., Wright, R. F., Galloway, J. N., and Bertha, T. J., 1979, Acid Rain: Scientific American, v. 241, no. 4, p. 43-59.

Peters, N. E., Schroeder, R. A., and Troutman, D. E., 1981, Temporal Trends in the Acidity of Precipitation and Surface Waters of New York: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2188, 44 p.

Schofield, C. L., 1976, Acid Precipitation: Effects on Fish: AMBIO, v. 5, no. 5-6, p. 228-230. U.S. Department of Energy, 1981, Acid Rain Information Book, Final Report: DOE/EP-0018

Mission

The Conservation Division performs several functions concerning the leasing, classification, and use of mineral and water resources on Federal and Indian lands, including the Federally owned Outer Continental Shelf. These functions have been delegated to the U.S. Geological Survey by the Secretary of the Interior and are accomplished through three major functions: • Evaluation of resources, which includes the classification of Federal lands to identify areas containing potentially valuable leasable minerals and areas valuable for waterpower and water-storage purposes. Also included in this mission is the evaluation of mineral resources on tracts of Federal lands that are exchanged, sold, or made available for development and production through a competitive leasing program.

Supervision of operations associated with the exploration, development, and production of minerals from leased Federal and Indian lands and Outer Continental Shelf lands.

• Collection of rentals and royalties for minerals from Federal and Indian lands.

The scope and complexity of these responsibilities have grown continuously over the past few decades as exploration, development, production, and revenues-particularly from activities related to the energy minerals-have increased and as the Nation's growing consciousness of its environmental responibilities matured into specific policies for protecting its land, air, and water resources. Within a complex framework of law, regulation, and policy, it is the function of the Geological Survey to assure that operations undertaken under Federal and Indian mineral leases support the objectives of sound and orderly resource development, safe and environmentally acceptable procedures, and the receipt of fair value for the resources produced.

As the Federal Government's principal agent in the management of energy and mineral resources development on Federal and Indian lands, the Geological Survey, through its Conservation Division, is confronted with the dual challenge of meeting the increased workload associated with rapidly accelerating industry exploration and development activity, while minimizing the cost. to the public of the services provided. In addi

tion, the Survey must strike an appropriate balance between minimizing the constraints to industry activities while providing the public with assurance that its economic and environmental interests are protected.

Budget and Personnel

In fiscal year 1981, $125.7 million in appropriated funding was required to support the Division's programs. More than one-half of the total was dedicated to the administration of leasing activities on the Outer Continental Shelf, which accounted for $68.9 million. The principal responsibilities addressed included activities necessitated by the Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act Amendments of 1978, while simultaneously accelerating the Outer Continental Shelf leasing program. Several initiatives to streamline the Outer Continental Shelf leasing process resulted in substantially lower expenditures in fiscal year 1981 than might otherwise have been required. Management of onshore leasing activities on Federal and Indian lands required $43.8 million, of which all but $1.3 million was from directly appropriated funds. Major new initiatives included initiation of activities leading to the first competitive lease sale in the National Petroleum Reserve in Alaska, commitment of additional funding to the management of industry oil and gas evaluation and development activity on Federal and Indian lands, the response to the passage of the Alaska Native Interest Lands Conservation Act, the implementation of additional efforts leading to increased oil shale leasing, and the initiation of efforts to increase nonenergy mineral leasing. The additional costs of these initiatives were partially offset by reductions in the nonenergy minerals and coal resource evaluation programs and termination of the program initiated in fiscal year 1979 to inventory the reserves of coal that are already under lease on Federal lands.

The most significant new initiative for the Conservation Division in fiscal year 1981 was the multiyear effort to design and install an Improved