is important, however, that each machine should receive the most careful attention from those in charge of it, otherwise defects will occur, and faulty work be the result.

The processes of cotton spinning are naturally divisible into two portions: 1st. the preparatory; 2nd. the constructive. The first chiefly consists of the cleansing processes by which the raw material is freed as far as possible from sand, dust, seed, and leaf; and short, immature, and undeveloped fibre. These include willowing or opening, scutching, carding, and sometimes combing. In the second division is found carding, combing (where used), drawing, slubbing, roving, and spinning. Mixing is the first process, and does not, strictly speaking, come into either division. It, however, is the first that requires attention.

MIXING. The class, quality, and numbers of the yarn it is intended to make having been decided upon, and purchases of suitable material made, the first step to be taken is to make a careful examination of all the stock of cotton proposed to be used for the purpose in view, in order to be assured that the proper quality has been received, and to guard against mistakes that may have occurred in delivery, errors of classification, false packing, and the differences of quality that is usually found to arise from the contents of the bales having been gathered at different periods of growth. It is usually performed by drawing samples from two or three parts of each bale, comparing these with others, and classifying or grouping them into lots having similar characteristics. Cotton gathered prematurely differs from that which is properly ripe in having fewer convolutions or "twists "in the fibre, and also in being softer and weaker. That which has been left too long on the plant, which is, in fact, over-ripe, is shrivelled by the excessive evaporation of the natural moisture of the fibre, and is thereby rendered hard and harsh, and combines badly with the softer and more pliable fibres of properly ripe cotton. It needs a considerable power of discrimination, which can only be acquired by experience, to discover these differences. The person

entrusted with the duty of classification ought to possess keenness of sight and great sensitiveness of touch, which he should carefully cultivate and develop to the highest state of perfection attainable in his case. It is well to make a mental note of the sensations experienced, and to associate them with the quality of the result obtained in the yarn. This examination and classification of cotton is too often carelessly, perfunctorily, or inefficiently performed, and an unsatisfactory product is the result. It is probable that if better attention was paid to grading the qualities more perfectly, it would not be found, as now, that in the best results spinners are only able to utilize about 25 per cent. of the strength of the fibres entering into the composition of their yarns.

In order to secure uniformity of quality in the product of a mill, it is best to lay down a mixing of cotton as large as means and convenience will permit. One that will last a month or six months is better than a small one that will last only a week, as every mixing causes some slight difference in quality or colour. Where the yarn is sold, these variations tend to excite suspicion regarding the good faith of the producer to his customer, and require on the part of the latter a constant watchfulness in order to prevent the changes proceeding to such an extent as to render the purchase unfit for its intended purpose. This suspicion will place any spinning at a disadvantage in the market, and tend to reduce the profit of a mill. Good management requires therefore that it should be avoided as far as possible. This can only be done in the manner indicated above.

Where different kinds of cotton are mixed together, the greatest care should be exercised in the selection of the staples, so that they may all be of one length, or as nearly so as possible. If short and long staples are put together, the result will be excessive waste and poor yarn; for rollers cannot be set to work two lengths of staple at one time with advantage. If they are set for the long staple,

the short will fall out and become waste; if set for the short, the long will be broken and also fall out; and weak and irregular yarn will be made. To combine the highest quality in the product, with the greatest economy of production, requires that long, short, or medium lengths of staples should each be worked by themselves. When

waste is mixed with the cotton, which is practised in spinning low numbers, or making inferior qualities, it should be selected in this respect as like the cottons it has to be worked with as possible.

In laying down or mixing, the cotton should be taken from the bales and shaken loose upon the floor, covering an area suitable to the intended size of the mixing. When a layer of the first description of cotton has been put down in this manner, another from the second kind should be laid upon it, if the quantities of the sorts are equal, taking care that they are of the same thickness; after this the third sort should be spread upon the top of the second, and so on until a layer of each lot has been laid, when the same course should be repeated until all the cotton has been laid down that it is intended should be included in the mixing. Sometimes, where only one or two varieties of cotton are in use, it is taken straight from the bale and passed through the willow without any preliminary mixing; but, from what has been already stated regarding the nature of the fibre and the varying conditions attendant upon its growth, this will be seen to be exceedingly unadvisable.

Mixing is now occasionally performed by a machine in the Oldham district, and with satisfactory results.

The magnitude and quality of the mixing having been satisfactorily settled, the bales are taken from the classified stock in proper quantities, the coverings removed, and the cotton passed through the apertures in the floor to the men in the room below, where it is spread over an area proportionate to the size of the intended mixing. Sometimes a space is railed off from the remainder of the room, and

divided into compartments, each of which is capable of holding one mixing. The doors of those compartments containing mixings not being used, are kept locked. By this means they are prevented from being improperly used. Each bale will form a layer, and the different qualities included in the mixing will be superimposed in a regular order, so as to secure the most perfect blending of the mass in succeeding stages.

When the mixing is completed, it is generally tested by taking a vertical section of the blend sufficiently large to put through the different machines, in order to get the result in yarn, which is carefully examined and compared with that which is then being made; or, better still, with a standard sample of the class and quality it is desired to maintain. The latter is the best plan, as in the former it is possible to get far away from the desired quality by the accumulation of small differences, imperceptible in themselves, but which are capable of changing the character of the yarn when repeated a number of times. When thus tested by this standard, should the new yarn be found deficient in strength, cleanliness, or colour, a sufficient quantity of the cotton possessing the requisite qualities to bring it right is added to the mixing. In many establishments, especially where high class qualities of yarn are made, and it is imperative that its reputation should not be lowered, a second, and even a third, testing will take place before the result may be accepted as perfectly satisfactory. Skill, experience, and care, however, often avail to produce the required result, even without any preliminary test; but this is where few changes are made in either the standard of cotton purchased or the counts of yarn spun. Economical considerations, however, in these days of keen competition and low profits, often render it necessary to change the component parts or relative quantities of the mixing; and, in these cases, the application of the test ought not to be neglected. Where low qualities of yarn are spun, and waste is freely used, tests are seldom

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considered necessary; though, if the desire exists, or economical advantages would result from the production of a yarn uniform in quality, the plan of testing ought to be adopted.

The mixing having been found right in all the points essential to quality, it is ready for use. It will be obvious that were the supply required to feed the opener taken from the top of the blend, all the purpose of the mixing process would be defeated. To avoid this, the required quantity is carefully and evenly drawn down from the sides of the pile by a short-pronged rake, which secures a further intermixture of the mass.

The component parts of the mixing will necessarily differ according to the quality of yarn sought to be produced. Experience is chiefly relied upon for the result; and most spinners of average skill are able to prescribe mixings with great accuracy that shall answer the problem before them. Still there is nothing like uniformity amongst them in this respect, many affecting to keep the particulars secret. The details given in a previous chapter show, in a general manner, the adaptability of certain cottons for spinning different numbers of yarn, and their suitability for admixture with each other.

Some spinners prefer to mix their cottons in the lap, especially when several varieties are used, and in equal quantities, or other proportions, such as will easily combine in the lap machine. In this plan it is usual to mix each kind alone, as already described, and laps are made from each mixing. Thus one lap each from three different kinds of cotton may be placed in a single scutcher, and by it united into one; or two and one; two and two, or any other desired proportions.

WILLOWING OR OPENING.-This is the first of the preparatory processes. The name "willowing" is derived from the treatment of cotton in the early days of manufacturing, when, in order to cleanse the cotton, it was spread upon an oblong frame, having a fine net of wire or other material