Twelve years later, or in 1787, the number of factories had increased to 143, containing 550 mules on Crompton's principle, and 20,700 jennies on the plan of Hargreaves, which by this time had received some important improvements. The number of water frames on Arkwright's principle cannot be ascertained; but the total number of spindles at work on the three systems in this year is estimated at 1,951,000, the cost of which, and of the auxiliary machinery, together with the buildings in which they were contained, reached in the aggregate £1,000,000. The number of operatives directly employed in the industry was supposed to be 26,000 men, 31,000 women, and 53,000 children, or 110,000 in all. In the subsequent stages of manufacture the number of persons employed was similarly estimated to be 133,000 men, 59,000 women, and 48,000 children. These constituted a grand total of 350,000 persons. In the same year, the raw material consumed slightly exceeded 22,000,000 lbs. The estimated annual value of the cotton manufacture at this time was £3,304,370, against £600,000 in 1767.

In 1785 Cartwright first invented the power loom, and in the year under notice, 1787, took out his second patent for the same machine, which he had greatly improved. In this year cotton machinery was first introduced into France, and the first cotton mill was built in the United States. The systematic cultivation of cotton in Georgia and Carolina was commenced as a commercial speculation in 1788. In the year following the first steam engine used for cotton spinning was erected in the mill of Mr. Drinkwater, Manchester, by Messrs. Boulton and Watt. parish of Oldham, now the greatest spinning centre in the world, at this time had only a population of 13,916. Progress after this date was rapid, and need not be traced in any further detail. A host of inventors were engaged upon improving the existing, and devising new machinery. Their efforts in various degrees were successful. Samuel Slater, an apprentice of Arkwright's, had gone to America,

The

and was employed in imitating the machinery amongst which he had been trained. The improved machinery of Lancashire was smuggled out of the country to the Continent, in spite of stringent laws to prevent its expor tation.

The rapid increase in the productive power of the new machinery frequently led it to overrun the distributive agencies then at work, and gluts succeeded one another rather frequently. The decline of values consequent on these conditions stimulated demand, which absorbed supplies, and quickly led to further extensions of machinery. Repetitions of these occurrences have constituted a great portion of the history of the trade, from the beginning of the current century to the present time. The most notable crisis in its history was the occurrence of the cotton famine in Lancashire, which arose from the war of Secession in the United States. This sprang from a movement having in view the preservation of the institution of negro slavery in the Southern, or cotton growing, States, which had grown to enormous proportions with the rise of the cotton trade. As every one knows, this cherished institution perished in the war; and its downfall is now generally regarded, even in the cotton States themselves, as a satisfactory result. Since that time there has been little to chequer or retard the progress of the trade beyond the recurrence of times of prosperity and depression.

The official returns of 1880 show that in England and Wales there were at that date 2,579 cotton factories, 2,482 of which were situated in what is known as the manufacturing districts of Lancashire, Yorkshire, Cheshire, and Derbyshire, the remaining ninety-seven being scattered over other parts of the country. Scotland, at the same time, had eighty-nine mills, and Ireland six, also devoted to the manufacture of cotton, thus giving a total of 2,674 for the United Kingdom. At that time these mills contained 39,527,920 spinning spindles, 4,678,770 doubling spindles, and 514,911 power looms. The staff of work

people was composed of 185,472 males, and 297,431 females. These numbers included 61,923 children under thirteen years of age, who were "half-timers." The total number of people thus directly employed in the cotton trade of this country alone was thus 482,903, which has probably increased since the date of these returns to 500,000.

The above figures, however, very inadequately express the magnitude and importance of this gigantic industry, for they embrace none of the subordinate and dependent branches. These include that portion of the iron trade engaged in the production of cotton machinery; the coal trade employed in providing fuel to supply its motive power; the furnishing trades which provide its numerous accessories; the bleaching, finishing, printing, and dyeing trades, that take its productions as they leave the mill; the carrying trades, which transfer its raw materials and products from one part to another, and finally distribute them to all parts of the world; and, lastly, those who take charge of its merchandise, no insignificant number in themselves. These vastly increase the aggregate of persons employed, and enlarge the general importance of the trade.

From this brief description it will be seen that the growth of this industry is one of the marvels of modern times. Whether the same rate of progress can be maintained or not in the future, as has been shown in the past, is a question that excites in thoughtful minds a great amount of interest, but the answer to which must be left for time to reveal. It may be safely said, however, that the present centres of the trade are not likely to be easily deposed from the position of eminence which they have acquired. Geographical location, climatic influences, and geological developments are amongst the chief conditions that control its successful conduct; and the character, training, and acquired skill of the people who are engaged in it, are elements that cannot be disregarded. There are

comparatively few spots on the earth in which the necessary conditions and advantages exist, combined in the same degree as they are found in the manufacturing districts of England; hence those interested may look forward with confidence to its maintaining its supremacy. Buttressed by protective tariffs, manufacturing may be carried on successfully in other countries not so suitably adapted to the purpose by natural conditions; but with the progress of education which is taking place in all communities, the impolicy of allowing one section of a community to grow rich at the expense of the rest, will become so strongly obvious that the economic fallacy of protection will perish for want of support.

This short review will show that whether judged by the amount of capital invested, the number of people employed, or the area over which it is spread, the cotton trade must be admitted to have but few rivals, and hardly any equal in importance, after precedence is given to the great pastoral and agricultural industries whose object is to provide the food supplies of mankind. To those persons,

therefore, whose capital, skill, and life's labour is invested in it, scarcely a more important inquiry can be presented than one having for its object an elucidation of the means by which the most satisfactory results may be attained, and each individual be enabled to direct his efforts to their accomplishment. To answer such an inquiry is the object of the following little treatise; and if the writer's effort be only approximately successful, the end in view will be attained.

CHAPTER II.

COTTON.

Cotton its order, genus, species, and characteristics.-Possible cotton lands; countries in which it is cultivated.-Geographical names.-Suitable soils for growth; preparation and sowing; picking season; picking; mechanical picking not successful.-American crop; area; cost of production; variations in quality and their causes; adulteration.-West Indies. Central and South America; indigenous variety.-Egypt; extent of crop; indigenous and exotic varieties; characteristics.-India a; extension of cultivation.-Other Asiatic countries: China; Japan and Java; Bokhara and Turkestan; Asiatic Turkey; Syria and Persia; Cyprus.-European countries: Turkey, Greece, Italy, and Spain.Differences of quality.-Geographical names the best.-Tabular statement of leading varieties: countries of production; names; districts where grown; length of staple and diameter of fibre; descriptions; capabilities and uses. - Principle of classification; classification of leading varieties.-Standard qualities and variation of these.-Careful selection required.--Mechanical structure of the cotton fibre: the cotton pod; stages of growth; the seed; the fibre; growth of the latter; causes of its twisted or convolute form; immature and undeveloped fibres.-Its mechanical structure, the basis of its usefulness.-Recent curious discovery by the microscope.-Cotton fibres compared with the other textile fibres.-Important general principles in spinning and manufacturing deduced from experience.

O plant, considering its importance to mankind, has received less attention from scientific men than the cotton plant. This is probably owing to its habitat being outside the countries where science has been most highly cultivated. The consequence is that amongst botanists there prevails considerable differences of opinion concerning the number of species and varieties that exist. The plant is classed in the order Malvaceae, under the name of Gossypium. Linnæus divides the genus into five species; De Candolle reckons thirteen; and other botanists have enlarged this number. But Dr. Royle, a most careful investigator, re