body, and the relation between it and heat; and man cannot alter or suspend that law. But whenever the human intellect perceives the, relation, and the consequences of violating it, the mind is prompted to avoid infringement, in order to shun the torture attached by the Creator to the decomposition of the human body by heat.

Similar views have long been taught by philosophers and divines. Bishop BUTLER, in particular, says: 'An Author of Nature being supposed, it is not so much a deduction of reason as a matter of experience, that we are thus under his government, in the same sense as we are under the government of civil magistrates. Because the annexing pleasure to some actions, and pain to others, in our power to do or forbear, and giving notice of this appointment beforehand to those whom it concerns, is the proper formal notion of government. Whether the pleasure or pain which thus follows upon our behaviour, be owing to the Author of Nature's acting upon us every moment which we feel it, or to his having at once contrived and executed his own part in the plan of the world, makes no alteration as to the matter before us. For, if civil magistrates could make the sanctions of their laws take place, without interposing at all, after they had passed them, without a trial, and the formalities of an execution; if they were able to make their laws execute themselves, or every offender to execute them upon himself, we should be just in the same sense under their government then as we are now; but in a much higher degree and more perfect manner. Vain is the ridicule with which one sees some persons will divert themselves, upon finding LESSER PAINS CONSIDTHERE

ERED AS INSTANCES OF DIVINE PUNISHMENT. IS NO POSSIBILITY OF ANSWERING OR EVADING the general thing here intended, WITHOUT DENYING ALL FINAL CAUSES. For, final causes being admitted, the pleasures and pains now mentioned must be admitted too, as instances of them. And if they are, if GoD annexes delight to some actions, with an apparent design to induce us to act so and so, then he not only dispenses happiness and misery, but also rewards and punishes actions. If, for example, the pain which we feel upon doing what tends to the destruction of our bodies, suppose upon too near approaches to fire, or upon wounding ourselves, be appointed by the Author of Nature to prevent our doing what thus tends to our destruction; this is ALTOGETHER AS MUCH AN INSTANCE OF HIS PUNISHING OUR ACTIONS, and consequently of our being under his government, as declaring, by a voice from Heaven, that, if we acted so, he would inflict such pain upon us, and inflict it whether it be greater or less.'*

If, then, the reader keep in view that God is the creator; that Nature, in the general sense, means the world which he has made; and, in a more limited the particular constitution which he has bestowsense, ed on any special object, of which we may be treating, and that a Law of Nature means the established mode in which that constitution acts, and the obligation thereby imposed on intelligent beings to attend to it, he will be in no danger of misunderstanding my meaning. Every natural object has received a definite constitution, in rtue of which it acts in a particular way. There must, therefore, be as many natural laws, as there are distinct modes of action of substances and beings, viewed by themselves. But substances and beings stand in certain relations to each other, and modify each other's action in an established and definite manner, according to that relationship; altitude, for instance, modifies the effect of heat upon water. There must, therefore, be also as many laws of nature, as there are relations between different substances and beings.

It is impossible, in the present state of knowledge, * Butler's Works, Vol. I, p. 44. Similar observations by

other authors will be found in the Appendix, No. I.

to elucidate all these laws: countless years may elapse before they shall be discovered; but we may investigate some of the most familiar and striking of them. Those that most readily present themselves bear reference to the great classes into which the objects around us may be divided, namely, Physical, Organic, and Intelligent. I shall therefore confine my self to the physical laws, the organic laws, and the laws which characterise intelligent beings.

1st. The Physical Laws embrace all the phenomena of mere matter; a heavy body, for instance, wnen unsupported, falls to the ground with a certain accelerating force, in proportion to the distance which it falls, and its own density; and this motion is said to take place according to the law of gravitation. An acid applied to a vegetable blue colour, converts it into red, and this is said to take place according to a chemical law.

2dly. Organized substances and beings stand higher in the scale of creation, and have properties peculiar to themselves. They act, and are acted upon, in conformity with their constitution, and are therefore said to be subject to a peculiar set of laws, termed the Organic. The distinguishing characteristic of this class of objects, is, that the individuals of them derive their existence from other organized beings, are nourished by food, and go through a regular process of growth and decay. Vegetables and Animals are the two great subdivisions of it. The organic laws are different from the merely physical. A stone, for example, does not spring from a parent stone; it does not take food from its parent, the earth, or air; it does not increase in vigor for a time, and then decay and suffer dissolution, all which processes characterize vegetables and animals. The organic laws are superior to the merely physical. For example, a living man, or animal, may be placed in an oven, along with the carcass of a dead animal, and remain exposed to a heat, which will completely bake the dead flesh, and yet come out alive, and not seriously injured. The dead flesh is mere physical matter, and its decomposition by the heat instantly commences; but the living animal is able, by its organic qualities, to counteract and resist to a certain extent, that influence. The expression Organic Laws, therefore, indicates that every phenomenon connected with the production, health, growth, decay, and death of vegetables and animals, takes place with undeviating regularity, whenever circumstances are the Animals are the chief objects of my present same.

observations.

3dly. Intelligent beings stand still higher in the scale than merely organized matter, and embrace all animals that have distinct consciousness, from the lowest of the inferior creatures up to man. The great divisions of this class are into Intelligent and Animal-and into Intelligent and Moral creatures. The dog, horse, and elephant, for instance, belong to the first class, because they possess some degree of intelligence, and certain animal propensities, but no moral feelings; man belongs to the second, because he possesses all the three These various faculties have received a definite consti tution from the Creator, and stand in determinate rela tionship to external objects: for example, a healthy palate cannot feel wormwood sweet, nor sugar bitter: a healthy eye cannot see a rod partly plunged in water straight, because the water so modifies the rays of light, as to give to the stick the appearance of being crooked; a healthy Benevolence cannot feel gratified with murder, nor a healthy Conscientiousness with fraud. As, therefore, the mental faculties have received a precise constitution, have been placed in fixed and definite relations to external objects, and act regularly, we speak of their acting according to rules or laws, and call these the Moral and Intellectual Laws.

perly used, signifies the rules of action impressed on

In short, the expression 'laws of nature,' when pro

different terms: Contrivance proves design; and the predominant tendency of the contrivance indicates the disposition of the designer. The world abounds with contrivances; and ALL THE CONTRIVANCES which we are acquainted with, are directed to beneficial purposes.' PALEY'S Mor. Phil. Edinb. 1816, p. 51. My object is to discover as many of the contrivances of the Creator, for effecting beneficial purposes, as possible; and to point out in what manner, by accommodating our conduct to these contrivances, we may lessen our misery and increase our happiness.

I do not intend to teach that the natural laws, discernible by unassisted reason, are sufficient for the salvation of man without revelation. Human interests Human interests regard this world and the next. To enjoy this world, I humbly maintain, that man must discover and obey the natural laws; for example, to ensure health to offspring, the parents must be healthy, and the children after birth must be treated in conformity to the organic laws; to fit them for usefulness in society, they must be instructed in their own constitution,-in that of external objects and beings, and taught to act rationally in reference to these. Revelation does not communicate complete or scientific information concerning the best mode of pursuing even our legitimate temporal interests, probably because faculties have been given to man to discover arts, sciences, and the natural laws, and to adapt his conduct to them. The physical, moral, and intellectual nature of man, is itself open to investigation by our natural faculties; and numerous practical duties resulting from our constitution are discoverable, which are not treated of in detail in the inspired volume; the mode of preserving health, for example; of pursuing with success a temporal calling; of discovering the qualities of men with whom we mean to associate our interests; and many others. My object, I repeat, is to investigate the natural constitution of the human body and mind, their relations to external objects and beings in this world, and the courses of action that, in consequence, appear to be

beneficial or hurtful.

:

Man's spiritual interests belong to the sphere of revelation and I distinctly declare, that I do not teach, that obedience to the natural laws is sufficient for salvation in a future state. Revelation prescribes certain requisites for salvation, which may be divided into two classes; first, faith or belief; and, secondly, the performance of certain practical duties, not as meritorious of salvation, but as the native result of that faith, and the necessary evidence of its sincerity. The natural raws form no guide as to faith; but so far as I can perceive their dictates and those of revelation coincide in all matters relating to practical duties in temporal affairs.

It may be asked, whether mere knowledge of the natural laws is sufficient to insure observance of them? Certainly not. Mere knowledge of music does not enable one to play on an instrument, nor of anatomy to perform skilfully a surgical operation. Practical training, and the aid of every motive that can interest the feelings, are necessary to lead individuals to obey the natural laws. Religion, in particular, may furnish motives highly conducive to this obedience. But, it must never be forgotten, that although mere knowledge is not all-sufficient, it is a primary and indispensable requisite to regular observance; and that it is as impossible, effectually and systematically to obey the natural laws without knowing them, as it is to infringe them with impunity, although from ignorance of their existence. Some persons are of opinion that Christianity alone suffices, not only for man's salvation, which I do not dispute, but for his guidance in all practical virtues, without knowledge of, or obedience to, the laws of nature; but from this notion I respectfully dissent. It appears to me, that one reason why vice and misery, in this world, do not diminish in proportion to preach

ing, is, because the natural laws are too much overlooked, and very rarely considered as having any relation to practical conduct.

Connected with this subject, it is proper to state, that I do not maintain that the world is arranged on the principle of Benevolence exclusively my idea is, that it is constituted in harmony with the whole faculties of man; the moral sentiments and intellect holding the supremacy. What is meant by creation being constituted in harmony with the whole faculties of man, is this. Suppose that we should see two men holding a third in a chair, and a fourth drawing a tooth from his head :-While we contemplated this bare act, and knew nothing of the intention with which it was done, and of the consequences that would follow, we would set it down as purely cruel; and say, that, although it might be in harmony with Destructiveness, it could not be so with Benevolence. But, when we were told that the individual in the chair was a patient, the operator a dentist, the two men his assistants, and that the object of all the parties was to deliver the first from violent torture, we would then perceive that Destructiveness had been used as a means to accomplish a benevolent purpose; or, in other words, that it had acted under the supremacy of moral sentiment and intellect, and we would approve of the transaction. If the world were created on the principle of Benevolence exclusively, no doubt the toothach could not exist; but, as pain does exist, Destructiveness has been given to place men in harmony with it, when used for a benevolent end.

I

To apply this illustration to the works of providence ; humbly suggest it as probable, that if we knew thoroughly the design and whole consequences of such institutions of the Creator, as are attended with pain, death, and disease, for example, we should find that Destructiveness was used as a means, under the guidance of Benevolence and Justice, to arrive at an end in harmony with the moral sentiments and intellect; in short, that no institution of the Creator has pure evil, or destructiveness alone, for its object. In judging of the divine institutions, the moral sentiments and intellect embrace the results of them to the race, while the propensities regard only the individual; and as the former are the higher powers, their dictates are of supreme authority in such questions. Farther, when the operations of these institutions are sufficiently understood, they will be acknowledged to be beneficial for the individual also; although, when partially viewed, this may not at first appear to be the case.

The opposite of this doctrine, viz. that there are institutions of the Creator which have suffering for their exclusive object, is clearly untenable; for this would be ascribing malevolence to the Deity. As, however the existence of pain is undeniable, it is equally impossible to believe that the world is arranged on the principle of Benevolence exclusively; and, with great submission, the view now presented reconciles the existence of Pain with that of Benevolence in a natural way, and the harmony of it with the constitution of the human mind, renders its soundness probable.

CHAPTER II.

OF THE CONSTITUTION OF MAN, AND ITS RELATIONS TO EXTERNAL OBJECTS.

Let us, then, consider the Constitution of Man, and the natural laws to which he is subjected, and endeavour to discover how far the external world is arranged with wisdom and benevolence, in regard to him. Bishop Butler, in the Preface to his Sermons, says, 'It is from considering the relations which the several appetites and passions in the inward frame have to each other, and, above all, the sUPREMACY of reflection or conscience, that we get the idea of the system or constitution of human nature. And from the idea itself,

their natural functions; disobedience to it is punished with feebleness, stinted growth, general imperfection, or death. A third organic law, applicable to man, is, that he shall duly exercise his organs, this condition being an indispensable requisite to health. The reward of obedience to this law, is enjoyment in the very act of exercising the functions, pleasing consciousness of existence, and the acquisition of numberless gratifications and advantages, of which labour, or the exercise of our powers, is the procuring means: disobedience is punished with derangement and sluggishness of the functions, with general uneasiness or positive pain, and with the denial of gratification to numerous faculties. Directing our attention to the constitution of the human body, we perceive that the power of reproduction Is bestowed on man, and also intellect, to enable him to discover and obey the conditions necessary for the transmission of a healthy organic frame to his descendants; that digestive organs are given to him for his nutrition, and innumerable vegetable and animal productions are placed around him, in wise relationship to these organs. Without attempting to expound minutely the organic structure of man, or to trace in detail its adaptation to his external condition, I shall offer some observations in support of the proposition, that the due exercise of the osseous, muscular, and nervous systems, under the guidance of intellect and moral sentiment, and in accordance with the physical laws, contributes to human enjoyment; and, that neglect of this exercise, or an abuse of it, by carrying it to excess, or by conducting it in opposition to the moral, intellectual, or physical laws, is punished with pain.

The earth is endowed with the capability of producing an ample supply for all our wants, provided we expend muscular and nervous energy in its cultivation; while, in most climates, it refuses to produce if we withhold this labour and leave it waste. Farther, the Creator has presented us with timber, metal, wool, and countless materials, which, by means of muscular power, may be converted into clothing, and all the luxuries of life. The fertility of the earth, and the demands of the body for food and clothing, are so benevolently adapted to each other, that with rational restraint on population, a few hour's labour each day from every individual capable of labour, would suffice to furnish all with every commodity that could really add to enjoyment.

In the tropical regions of the globe, for example, where a high atmospheric temperature diminishes the quantum of muscular energy, the fertility and productiveness of the soil are increased in a like proportion, so that less labour suffices. Less labour, also, is required to provide habitations and raiment. In the colder latitudes, muscular energy is greatly increased, and there much higher demands are made upon it. The earth is more sterile, the rude winds require firmer fabrics to resist their violence, and the piercing frosts require a thicker covering to the body.

Farther, the food afforded by the soil in each climate is admirably adapted to the maintenance of the organic constitution in health, and to the supply of the muscular energy requisite for the particular wants of the situation. In the Arctic Regions no farinaceous food ripens; but on putting the question to Dr Richardson, how he, accustomed to the bread and vegetables of the temperate regions, was able to endure the pure animal diet, which formed his only support on his expedition to the shores of the Polar Sea along with Captain Franklin, he replied, that the effects of the extreme dry cold to which they were exposed, living, as they did, constantly in the open air, was to produce a desire for the most stimulating food they could obtain; that bread in such a climate was not only not desired, but comparatively impotent, as an article of diet; that pure animal food, and the fatter the better, was the only sustenance that maintained the tone of the corporeal system, but that when it was abundant (and the quantity required was

much greater than in milder latitudes) a delightful vigour and buoyancy of mind and body were enjoyed, that rendered life highly agreeable. Now, in beautiful harmony with these wants of the human frame, these regions abound, during summer, in countless herds of deer, in rabbits, partridges, ducks, in short, in game of every description, and fish; and the flesh of these dried, constitutes delicious. food in winter, when the earth is wrapped in one wide-spread covering of snow.

In Scotland, the climate is moist and cold, the greater part of the surface is mountainous, but admirably adapted for raising sheep and cattle, while a certain portion consists of fertile plains, fitted for farinaceous food. If the same law holds in this country, the diet of the people should consist of animal and farinaceous food, the former decidedly predominating. As we proceed to warmer latitudes, we find the soil and temperature of France less congenial to sheep and cattle, but more favourable to corn and wine; and the Frenchman inherits a native elasticity of body and mind, that enables him to flourish in vigour on less of animal food, than would be requisite to preserve the Scottish Highlander in a like gay and alert condition, in the recesses of his mountains. The plains of Hindostan are too hot for the sheep and ox, but produce rice and vegetable spices in prodigious abundance, and the native is healthy, vigorous and active, when supplied with rice and curry, and becomes sick, when obliged to live upon animal diet. He, also, is supplied with less muscular energy from this species of food, and his soil and climate require far less laborious exertion than those of Britain, Germany, or Russia.

So far, then, the external world appears to be wisely and benevolently adapted to the organic system of man, that is, to his nutrition, and to the developement and exercise of his corporeal organs; and the natural law appears to be, that all, if they desire to enjoy the pleasures attending sound and vigorous muscular and nervous systems, must expend in labour the energy which the Creator has infused into these organs. A wide choice is left open to man, as to the mode in which he shall exercise his nervous and muscular systems. The labourer, for example, digs the ground, and the squire engages in the chase. The penalty of neglecting this law is debility, bodily and mental, lassitude, imperfect digestion, disturbed sleep, bad health, and, if carried to a certain length, death. The penalty for over-exerting these systems is exhaustion, mental incapacity, the desire of strong artificial stimulants, such as ardent spirits, general insensibility, and grossness of feeling and perception, with disease and shortened life. Society has not recognised this law, and in consequence, the higher orders despise labour, and suffer the first penalty; while the lower orders are oppressed with toil, and undergo the second. The penalties serve to provide motives for obedience to the law, and wherever it is recognised, and the consequences are discovered to be inevitable, men will no longer shun labour as painful and ignominious, but resort to it as a source of pleasure, as well as to avoid the pains inflicted on those who neglect it.

SECT. III.—MAN CONSIDERED AS AN ANIMAL-MORAL

AND INTELLECTUAL BEING.

In the third place, man is an animal-moral--and intellectual being. To discover the adaptation of these parts of his nature to his external circumstances, we must first know what are his various animal, moral, and intellectual powers themselves. Phrenology gives us a view of them, drawn from observation; and as I have verified the inductions of that science, so as to satisfy myself that it is the most complete and correct exposition of the Nature of Man which has yet been given, I adopt its classification of facuces as the basis of the subsequent observations. According to Phrenology, then, the Human Faculties are the following: