examined the school in his yearly visitation, he was to fine guilty parents sixteen groschen. In later times, retention of a child from school is punished first by a fine in money. If the parents refuses to pay the money, his goods are sold. If this fails, or if the parent has no goods to sell, the parent is put in prison for a short time. But inspectors, teachers, and local boards, are urged to use every means of persuasion before punishment is applied. The fees have always been small. In 1848, during the discussions which then took place, it was agreed that in the people's school no fees should be exacted, and the constitution of 1850, sworn to by the king, contains this clause, 'In the public peo-. ple's schools instruction is given free of charge.' But this part of the constitution has never been carried into practice. If, however, the child's parents are too poor to pay the school-fee, the school board pays it. Moreover, education opens up wide prospects to all Prussian citizens. If a pupil shows great capacity, there is a free place for him in the gymnasium and university. There are ten free places on an average for every one hundred pupils in a gymnasium. Every encouragement is given to ability. The Government aims at having all the ability of the country on its side and in its service.

The one question which has arisen in regard to the State's management is whether too much pains is not bestowed on making the poorer classes Prussian citizens, and too little on making them men. Now as in Church matters, so in State the science of teaching has roused a certain amount of antagonism. 'We must make our scholars men,' says the science of teaching. We must give them a knowledge of the history of other nations. We must bring out their human sympathies. And for this purpose we must get rid of the bureaucratic interference of State. The school must be a separate institution, independent, to a large extent, of Church and State, and governed by those only belonging to the scholastic profession. There is a society in Berlin, already mentioned, that aims at accomplishing this emancipation of school alike from State and from Church, and it ranks among its members some eminent men; but it is not likely to accomplish all that it wishes, though it may certainly do a great deal of good.

Last of all, the most influential cause that has led to the Prussian success is the wide appreciation of education. This appreciation did not always exist. Frederick's legislation was to some extent frustrated by the stinginess of the nobility, and partly by the opposition of those who doubted whether education was good for the laboring classes. It is characteristic of Prussia that these obscurantists were not so much afraid for the men as for the women. What good can it do, they said, to teach girls to write? They will then spend their whole time in writing love-letters. But the case is now altered. Just ideas of education have permeated the people. These ideas have indeed come from above downward. The Prussian management does not listen to any control from uneducated or half educated men. But the Prussian Government claims the intelligent sympathy of all classes. And it has it. How is this? To explain this fully would require something like a history of the intellectual development of the Prussians during the last two centuries. But I shall attempt a short contribution to the explanation. The growth of a genuine literature in the end of last century is remarkable in this respect: it was the result, to a large extent, of criticism. Lessing, the father of it, was by eminence a critic. He examined minutely the laws and limits of poetry, sculpture, and painting. He discussed the drama. He was a critic of the classics. He established principles of criticism. He worked by vision. It was the same with Herder. He was at home in all the phases of humanity. He gathered the ballads and legends of every nation. He sifted them, and drew out the human from them. This habit of looking into things brought the writers face to face with reality, and the width of their range opened up all the aspects of human nature. The classical studies of Wolf and a host of successors had the same effect. They revealed and created a life different from the ecclesiastical one. They placed them at a widely different point of view. And, above all, they brought home to them the laws of evolution, as they appear in the progress of mankind. It was natural that, when the education of mankind was deeply pondered, the evolution of the single mind should arrest attention. And at length it did. This is

not so easy a subject as we are apt to imagine. We have been infants, we have been boys, and therefore we think we know what infants and boys are. But do we? For two of our first years our minds were incessantly employed. Thousands of impressions were made on them. We felt thousands of joys and sorrows. And yet we can not remember one of them. That early life is a mystery which we can not recall, and which to a large extent we can not fathom. The distance between our present life and that of boys is not so great, but still it is very great. Boys and men seem like; but they are in reality very unlike the boy goes through many stages before he reaches manhood. What are these stages through which the boy goes? What is the natural healthy evolution of the powers of a boy's mind? These were the questions which Pestalozzi put to himself, and in answering them produced a revolution. To be a teacher of children,' said Luther, 'you must become a child.' And Pestalozzi became a child: with a heart glowing with love to his fellowmen, with singularly keen and lively sympathies, with an ardent affection for the poor, and with a rare consciousness of his own weaknesses, he set himself to the work of teaching boys to become men. The problem, you see, is not to teach children to read or write. Books are but mere instruments. The child stands face to face with nature, man, and God. These are his real lesson books. What is the alphabet of this instruction? What are the various stages? Pestalozzi pored over these problems: and he gave his answers. The answers. spread over Europe. New light was thrown on education. The best minds in Prussia turned to the solution of the difficult problems; and the result was a universal interest among all cultivated people in education. And you may at once see why this interest should be great and persuasive in Germany. It was pressed upon the people by all their greatest minds. Look at German literature, and you will find this to be the case. Herder wrote specially on education. Goethe devoted a great deal of attention to it, and some of the most beautiful portions of the Wilhelm Meister are descriptions of his imaginary schools. Jean Paul flung out a noble book on education full of grand thoughts. In fact, no German can be well acquainted with the best literature of his country without having to ponder the truest and wisest thoughts that have been uttered on education. The philosophers also took the subject up. Kant delivered lectures on the science of education. 'Education,' he says, 'is the hardest and most difficult problem which can be proposed to man.' Fichte addressed himself to the question in his speeches to the nation. And Hegel's Phænomenologie is so full of the development of the child's mind, that Deinhardt, Thaulow, and Rosenkranz, have issued Hegelian systems of education. The theologians, like Schleiermacher, also devoted themselves to an examination of it. And in particular the psychologists deemed it as a special portion of their department. Two of these, Beneke and Herbart, have given us a thoroughly scientific exposition of the whole subject. They analyzed every process of the child's thought; they estimated the value of every subject of instruction; they discussed the relation of the intellectual to the emotional and practical; they investigated the nature of that interest which children feel in learning; they defined the purposes and aims of instruction; and they examined philosophically the various schemes for its organization. The subject became a subject of scientific research. It found exponents in the Universities. There arose a pædagogik or science of instruction for all classes of schools. The Gymnasien shared in the movement. It was held out that the great object of the Gymnasien was to prepare the pupil for the search for truth. The Universities were the field for this search. Accordingly, there exists a keen desire to investigate. There are men whose only business it is to investigate. They examine without prejudice the principles which underlie education. Their examinations keep up fresh interest and give fresh life to the subject. This life distills through the seminaries for teachers. The future teachers are made acquainted with all the investigations that are going on. They have to think the subject out for themselves. They know that teaching is an art which acts according to the laws that regulate the evolution of the human mind. They watch these laws. Their eyes are open. Their interest is lively. They believe that they have a great and noble work to do. And their pupils also come

to know that their teachers are artists; and hence the laws of education are extensively known in Germany. The consequence is that the people appreci ate education, that they do not meddle with what only a practical and scientific knowledge can direct, and they demand of all their instructors a minute investigation into the laws of man's being. The educator is with them not a mere crammer; but all feel that his first and great duty is the harmonious and equable evolution of the human powers. This appreciation of education seems to me the great secret of the Prussian'success. It leads to an earnest determination on the part of the Government that the education be thorough, and every effort of the Government is backed up by the hearty sympathy and intelligent cooperation of the people.

We have to add to this appreciation of education the circumstance that Prussia has had to force its way upwards. It has always been ambitious; and it has always aimed at attaining the object of its ambition through the education of the whole people, especially, indeed, through the higher education, but also through the lower. The State has felt in regard to its prosperity what Luther felt in regard to the Church. 'It is difficult,' he says, 'to make old dogs obedient and old scoundrels pious-the work at which the preacher labors and must often labor in vain; but the young trees can be more easily bent and trained.'

It is in the youth that the State of Prussia has placed its hope. Frederick the Great was beset by Russians, Austrians, and French: he was reduced to the lowest depths sometimes, and his kingdom was exhausted. How did he think of reviving it? The first thing he did after the Seven Years' War was ended, even before the peace of Hubertsberg was ratified, was to promulgate an admirable education Act-the Act, as I have said, of Hecker. Again, when the State was overrun by Napoleon, to what did Frederick William III. and his minister Stein turn? Unquestionably we have lost in territory,' said the king; unquestionably the State has sunk in external might and glory, but we will and must take care that we gain in internal might and internal glory; and therefore it is my earnest desire that the greatest attention be devoted to the education of the people.' Again he says, 'I am thoroughly convinced that for the success of all that the State aims at accomplishing by its entire constitution, legislation, and administration, the first foundation must be laid in the youth of the people, and that at the same time a good education of the youth is the surest way to promote the internal and external welfare of the individual citizens.' 'Most,' said Stein, in 1808, 'is to be expected from the education and instruction of the youth. If by a method based on the nature of the mind every power of the soul be unfolded, and every crude principle of life be stirred up and nourished, if all one-sided culture be avoided, and if the impulses (hitherto often neglected with great indifference), on which the strength and worth of man rest, be carefully attended to, then we may hope te see a race physically and morally powerful grow up, and a better future dawn upon us.' The method to which Stein here alludes was the method of Pestalozzi, Stein characterizes this method as one which elevates the self-activity of the spirit, awakens the sense of religion and all the nobler feelings of man; promotes the ideal life, and lessens and opposes a life of mere pleasure.' These words of the king and his minister rang through the nation. The idea seized them. It permeated all the legislative measures of Altenstein, the Minister of Education, and it worked mighty results. It was within the twenty-three years of Altenstein's ministry that Prussia made such progress in education that she became an object of admiration to the nations of Europe, and Frenchmen and Englishmen went to see the system. And by it Prussia grew in strength and power. The Prussian people have had faith in education. They believed with Kant that 'behind education lies hid the great secret of the perfection of human nature.' They believed with Fichte that only that nation which shall first perform the task of educating up to perfect manhood by actual practice will perform the task of the perfect State. They believed that education makes better citizens, better soldiers, better fathers, and better men. And history records, in great successes in war, and still greater successes in the realms of thought and science, that her faith has not been in vain.

SYSTEM OF INFANT GARDEN TRAINING AND INSTRUCTION,

GOETHE-ROSENKRANZ,-HERBART,-BENEKE,-PICHTE,
EXAMPLES OF GERMAN TREATMENT OF PEDAGOGIC SUBJECTS

KARL VON RAUMER,

CONTRIBUTIONS TO PEDAGOGY,

1. EARLY CHILDHOOD AND YOUTH,

9-22

11

23

23

17-62

17

79-368

81

81

ROSENKRANZ AND HIS PEDAGOGY.

MEMOIR.

JOHN CHARLES FREDERICK ROSENKRANZ was born at Magdeburg, April 23, 1805. In addition to the educational facilities of his native city, he attended lectures at Berlin, Halle, and Heidelberg, receiving his veniam docendi at Halle in 1828. In 1831, he became assistant professor, following enthusiastically the philosophical teaching of Hegel. In 1833, he received a call to Königsburg, as professor ordinarius, and there he has performed his university work, with an absence of a year (1848) in official work at Berlin, and as deputy from Memel and Tilsit to the Prussian Diet in 1849. His voice as a lecturer has been devoted to disseminating the ideas of Hegel, and applying them to history, literature, theology, and life. As an author, his first work of importance was a 'History of German Poetry in the Middle Ages' (Halle, 1830), in which he endeavors to trace its development from the Hegelian standpoint. This was followed by a 'Hand-Book of the Universal History of Poetry,' and in 1836, of the History of German Literature,' made up of fugitive pieces previously published.

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The following are the titles of works since published :

Natural Religion; Encyclopedia of Theology; Critique of (on) Schliermacher's Theory of Religion.

Psychology; or the Science of the Subjective Spirit (Wissenschaft vom Subjectivem Geiste). Königsburg, 1837.

History of Transcendental Philosophy, (published in the last volume of the edition of Kant's works, edited by Rosenkranz and Schubest).

Life of Hegel. Critique on Strauss' Glaubenslehre.

Diderot's Life and Works. 2 vols., Leipsig, 1866.

Although Rosenkranz has published less on the prolific subject of Pedagogy than his professorial cotemporaries, his views are regarded as singularly comprehensive and profound-at once philosophical and practical.