purpose, the founders of new sects had no scruple and no difficulty in composing new Upanishads of their own."*

The Vedángas are called the Limbs of the Vedas, and display the mode in which scientific research sprung from the sacred texts. The first Vedánga is Siksha, which treats of the science of orthoepy, or proper pronunciation; the second, called Chhandas, treats of prosody; the third, named Vyákarana, treats of grammar. Upon this the celebrated Pánini wrote a treatise which is considered as equal to the best grammatical works of any nation or age: it is in eight chapters, consisting of thirty-two sections and three thousand nine hundred and ninety-six rules. So great was the renown of this wonderful labour (of which we have an admirable edition edited by Dr. Goldstücker), that it was supposed to have been inspired by the god Śiva himself, and it is still to the present day the standard of Sanskrit speech. The fourth Vedánga is Nirukta, which treats of etymology; the fifth is Jyotisha, which treats of astronomy; and the sixth Vedánga is the Kalpa, or ceremonial, and constitutes the code of the Brahmanic rites. Two other classes of Sástras complete the code of these Kalpa works, and are the Grihya and the Sámayáchárika Sútras; the former describes the domestic ceremonies as distinct from the great sacrificial acts, and consists of the marriage ceremonies, those performed on conception, at various periods before birth, at birth, on naming the child, of carrying him out to see the sun, of feeding him, of cutting his hair, and "of investing him as a student and handing him to a guru, under whose care he is to study the sacred writings. It is only after he has served his apprenticeship and grown up to manhood that he is allowed to marry, to light the sacrificial fire for himself, to choose his priests, and to perform year after year the solemn sacrifices prescribed by Sruti and Smriti. The latter

...

* Müller's Anc. Sansk. Lit., p. 317.

are described in later books of the Grihya-sútras, and the last book contains a full account of the funeral ceremonies and of the sacrifices offered to the spirits of the departed." The Sámayáchárika Sutras regulate the relations of every day life, and in them we have to look for the originals of the metrical law books, such as Manu, Yajnavalkya, and the rest.t

The next class are the Vedopángas, which are divided into four, viz.: first, the Mimánsá, which explains portions of the Veda, both doctrinal and ceremonial; the second Nyáya, which contains a refutation of atheism, by way of reasoning; the third, Dharma Śástra, containing the ordinations of Manu, a complete code of morality, and a poetical account of God, spirits, and the origin of the world and man; and the fourth class are the Puránas, which consist of eighteen, to which are appended as many Upapuránas, or compilations and explanations. Taken collectively they are of mystical and philosophical contexture, cosmogonical, theogonical, and chronological; and contain extensive legendary narratives. We will briefly enumerate them, with their contents:

1. Vishnu Purána, the history of Vishnu and his incarnations, in 23000 Ślokas. 2. Náradya Purána, the history of Nárad, as god of music, in 25000 Ślokas. 3. Bhágavata Purána, the history of Krishna or Vishnu, in twelve books, 11000 Ślokas. 4. Garuda Purána, in 19000 Ślokas. 5. Padma Purána, the history of Lakshmi, the Consort of Vishnu, in 55000 Ślokas. 6. Varáha Purána, the history of the third incarnation of Vishnu, in 24000 Ślokas. 7. Matsya Purána, the history of the first incarnation of Vishnu, in 14000 Ślokas. 8. Linga Purána, the history of Śiva, in 11000 Ślokas. 9. Śiva Purána, in 24000 Ślokas. 10. Skanda Purána, the history of Skanda, the son of Śiva, in 81000 Ślokas. 11. Agneya Purána, the abstract of all know† Ibid, p. 200.

Müller's Anc. Sansk. Lit., p. 204.

ledge, in 15500 Ślokas. 12. Kurma Purána, in 17000 Ślokas. 13. Brahmánda Purána, the history of Rámachandra, in 12000 Ślokas. 14. Brahma Vaivartta Purána, which is especially dedicated to Krishna as Govinda, and is principally occupied by him and his mistress Rádhá: it is also full on the subject of Prakriti, or personified nature, in 18000 Ślokas. 15. Márkandeya Purána, the history of Durga, which contains the famous Chandi Pátha, in 9000

Ślokas. 16. Bhavishya Purána, in 14500 Ślokas. 17. Vámana Purána, in 10000 Ślokas. 18. Brahma Puráṇa, in 10000 Ślokás.

The four Upavedas comprise-1. Ayurva, which treats of surgery and physic. 2. Dhanarva, which treats of the art of war. 3. Gandharva, which treats of music and dancing. And 4. Artha-Śástra, which treats of political economy.

Together with these canonical books may be classed the two ancient and excellent Epics-namely, the Rámáyana, the work of Válmika, containing the history of Ráma, king of Ayodhya, the seventh avatár of Vishņu; and the Mahábharata, containing the war between Pándavas and Kauravas, the descendants of the ancient Indian king Bhárata, in eighteen books and more than 100,000 Ślokas, the celebrated episode of which, the Bhagavad Gitá, is well known.

CHAPTER II.

RELIGIOUS SECTS OF THE HINDUS.

In the last chapter we took a brief and rapid review of the sacred writings of the Hindus. It was to be expected that many conflicting opinions would originate in such a mass of doctrine, commentary, and interpretation, the heterogeneous subjects introduced, and the errors and misconceptions interpolated by transcribers in the lapse of centuries. These opinions led progressively to divergent views, strained sometimes to excess by the subtle artifices of a crafty priesthood, prompted by the instigations of a paramount self-interest; and sometimes by the enthusiam of the devotee, who, conscientiously conceiving that he had, in his meditations, detected the true path, was anxious that his contemporaries and posterity should not be lost in intricate by-ways, and so promulgated his peculiar views, which ensured advocates and followers. Thus, in the thousand and one modes by which new opinions are disseminated and adherents found, the Hindu religion, like the other religiors of the world, has generated sects and sectaries, and the number of those who are dissentient in their tenets and their ceremonies is multitudinous.

"The worship of the populace, being addressed to different divinities, the followers of the several gods naturally separated into different associations, and the adorers of Brahmá, Vishnu, and Śiva, or other phantoms of their faith, become distinct and insulated bodies in the general aggregate. The conflict of opinion on subjects on which human reason has never yet

agreed, led to similar differences in the philosophical class, and resolved itself into the several Darsanas, or schools of philosophy."

"To the internal incongruities of the system, which did not affect its integral existence, others were, in time, superadded that threatened to dissolve or destroy the whole. Of this nature was the exclusive adoration of the old deities, or of new forms of them; and even, it may be presumed, the introduction of new divinities. In all these respects, the Puránas and Tantras were especially instrumental; and they not only taught their followers to assert the unapproachable superiority of the gods they worshipped, but inspired them with feelings of animosity towards those who presumed to dispute that supremacy. In this conflict the worship of Brahmá has disappeared, as well as, indeed, that of the whole pantheon, except Vishnu, Śiva, and Śakti, or their modifications. With respect to the two former, in fact, the representatives have borne away the palm from the prototypes, and Krishna, Ráma, or the Linga, are almost the only forms under which Vishnu and Siva are now adored in most parts of India.

"The varieties of opinion kept pace with those of practice; and six heretical schools of philosophy disputed the preeminence with their orthodox brethren. We have little or no knowledge of these systems, and even their names are not satisfactorily stated: they seem, however, to be the Saugata, or Bauddha; Árhata, or Jaina; and Várhaspatya, or atheistical, with their several subdivisions.

"Had the difference of doctrine taught in the heretical schools been confined to tenets of a merely speculative nature, they would, probably, have encountered little opposition, and excited little enmity among the Brahmanical class, of which latitude of opinion is a very common characteristic. Vrihaspati, the founder of the atheistical school, however, H. H. Wilson's Works, vol. i. p. 2.