cations into the various provinces, his majesty is cognizant of and takes interest in all progressive measures throughout Italy, and this very centralization of authority has aided in securing popular education throughout the Kingdom.

In 1861, omitting Venetia and Rome (the former subject to Austria, the latter to the Pope), the illiteracy of the inhabitants above 20 years of age was 73.50 per cent; twenty years later (1881) this had decreased to 63.45 per cent. In 1891 the percentage of illiterates of all ages was 55; from 12 to 20 years, 42; and the marriage registers show only 28.39 per cent for men and women in northern Italy.

The number of pupils in public elementary schools has doubled since 1862. In that year 1,008,674 pupils were reported in 21,353 schools; in 1892, 2,266,593 pupils in 49,217 schools. In the last five years (1887-1892) training schools for teachers have increased from 135 to 149; pupils from 11,000 to 18,020.

Education is not compulsory above the elementary grades, yet the classical schools (ginnaso and licei, corresponding to our high schools and academies and including our first two years of college) had 71,751 students in 1891-92, and the technical schools and institutes 40,928 students in 1890-91. Seeking classical training in 1881, students, 63,800; seeking technical training for practical life in 1880, students, 28,069.

The 21 universities show an accelerated increase in number of pupils; in 1856 a student population of 9,449, in 1882 of 12,919, in 1891-92 increase to 17,792. The faculties of law and medicine had and have the largest number of students-5,330 in law in 1888, in medicine 8,018; in 1892 there were 5,442 law students, 7,326 in medicine and surgery, and 1,452 in pharmacy.

Special attention is called in this article to the growth of the public schools in Rome during a twenty-years' period. The development is noticeable in point of numbers, in the variety of schools, and range of instruction. In 1870 there were 41 schools and 6,291 pupils; in 1890, 142 schools and 26,149 pupils. The cost of the schools of Rome in 1871 was 579,375 lire ($111,819); in 1889 it was 2,760,816 lire ($522,837). Developing with "the new political Italy" there has been "a new educational Italy;" there is now "a national system of education," "born of national spirit," "coextensive with the national territory.” Practical training and scientific instruction now interest the people "in the land of the Renaissance," where also "the classical tradition was always strong."

The subject of education in Russia was presented at some length in my report for 1890-91 (pp. 194-262). Attention was called to the complex conditions with which the authorities have to deal in their efforts to educate a people of which only 79.89 per cent are Russians; 8.11 per cent belong to the Aryan races from the East; 2.67 per cent to the Semitic races; 9.17 per cent to the Finnish and Tartar groups; 0.17 per cent to other races. Special attention was directed to the

form of government-the mir, or village community (of which there were 107,493 in European Russia), whose affairs are regulated in a general assembly of all the heads of families of the mir or village; to the Russian system of village industries suited to the locality, and to the reform movements in Russian universities which tend to more thoroughly nationalize these institutions.

The following brief statement epitomizes the above facts; it presents a total of 6.9 per cent of children of school age in school in 1875 and of 11 per cent in 1888, an increase in 13 years of 4 per cent. Thus it appears that there were 93.1 per cent of children of school age who were not in school in the former year and 89 per cent in the latter year. According to reports, only 2 per cent of the aggregate population are at school, and only 20 per cent of the recruits can read and write. School officials-curators, directors, etc.-have been called to St. Petersburg to discuss the subject, and, as a result, compulsory attendance is to be enforced from the beginning of 1895 in the "governments" of Charkov, Poltava, Kursk, and Woronetz.

It is stated that "a rural school-teacher averages about $8.82 salary for a winter's teaching." The teacher has lodging and board, however. Special effort is being made to nationalize (or "Russianize”) all schools. This is particularly noticeable in the Dorpat district, where the German element predominates; a Russian inspector has now taken the place of the rector of the university, student societies have been prohibited, and the Russian language is to be used in giving instruction.

A commission, or number of committees, is engaged in devising the best means to be adopted in founding a system of education for the whole Empire. One committee has acted as agent for the distribution of needed school books. In 1894 the number distributed was 51,500, of which 86 per cent went to the "governments" of Central Russia, where the Zemstvos, or provincial assemblies, were endeavoring to improve their schools. Another committee aided in the establishment of school libraries; another is engaged in collecting statistical information so as to more thoroughly present the educational needs of different subdivisions of the Empire.

From the remotest period to the accession of Peter the Great the social organization of Russia was based on the patriarchal idea-women being excluded from school privileges. Catherine the Second was the first sovereign to display an interest in the education of the women of Russia. She established, in 1764, an Educational Home for Girls of Noble Birth. From that beginning there was developed an educational work which is presented in an historical sketch of the Marie (so called from the Empress Marie Fedorovna, 1796-1828) educational and charitable institutions. Under the immediate patronage of their majesties, the Czar and Czarina, these include hospitals and benevolent institutions, schools for the deaf, dumb, and blind, public schools and insti

tutes for girls. In twelve years the Russian people have contributed 10,000,000 rubles toward the support of the 472 institutions. In 1891 there were 24,417 persons in the educational establishments and 498,108 were aided by the Marie institutions which receive support from the Imperial family, from endowments previously founded, from a subsidy composed of 500,000 rubles accorded by the State treasury, from payments of pupils, and from public contributions.

In addition to the development of the Russian village industries, manual training is now taught in 19 teachers' seminaries, in 6 gymnasia, in 18 military colleges, in 150 town and village schools, and there are eleven temporary manual-training courses for teachers.

In Finland, a grand duchy of Russia, one still finds much of the sturdy independence of the Swedes, to which nation it belonged until 1809.

The Swedes and Finns formed a single nation for seven hundred years, and for a long period Swedish ideas predominated. About 85 per cent of the inhabitants of Finland are Finns and 14 per cent are Swedes, but the Swedes have been the dominating, cultured element for years; now there is greater equalization. In religious persuasion 98.05 per cent are Protestants.

Each nationality has its own schools where the instruction is given in either the Swedish or Finnish language, and there are also SwedishFinnish schools in sections where the population is of too mixed a character to make it advisable to support separate schools.

The ambulatory school, as in Sweden, is a noteworthy feature. The teacher holds a school for a short period in one place and then moves on to another, much in the way that the circuit courts move about in the United States. In Finland in 1891 the ratio to the hundred of population was 7.47 in ambulatory schools and 2.41 in stationary schools of an elementary grade. Of the school population of 470,382 (7 to 16 years), only 21,523 children were not receiving any instruction at all.

Coeducation has been attempted in some schools of both elementary and secondary grades, and it is stated that, since 1883, five private coeducational institutions (four for the Swedes, one for the Finns) have been created, but the authorities do not as yet favor the giving of subsidies to coeducational institutions.

The benefits of education have been brought within the reach of the humblest peasant in Finland, and the comparative prosperity of the people is due in part to this. Impetus has been given to agriculture and horticulture, and to dairy farming, and prizes are offered to encourage the peasant class to develop the best methods of carrying on agricul tural pursuits. Skilled persons go from place to place and instruct in carpentering, smithcraft, fish curing, etc. Temperance associations have been organized, and many pamphlets distributed which point out the dangers of alcoholic stimulants.

Competition in athletic sports is another feature authorized by the authorities; gymnastics is obligatory for both sexes in institutions of all grades, and school children are taught to swim, to skate, to ride bicycles, etc.

In my report for 1892-93 I included a chapter on child study (Vol. I, pp. 357-391). The subject is continued in the present report, in connection with a survey of recent movements pertaining to psychology in general (Chap. X).

Attention is called to new periodicals devoted to the subject as a whole or to some particular phase-i. e., The Psychological Review, The Child Study Monthly, etc.-and to the societies formed for promoting research in this province. Emphasis is placed upon the movements for correlating the results of different classes of investigation; the equipment of the leading universities for research in psycho-physics is given somewhat in detail with notices of the courses in child study maintained side by side with laboratory work. The principal results of the new psychology bearing directly upon school work are cited, and emphasis is placed upon their agreement with the conclusions reached by physiological investigations.

To the general survey of the movement several papers are appended, comprising discussions of the relations between the old and the new psychology, by Dr. Münsterberg, the bearing of the new psychology upon education by Dr. G. Stanley Hall, and other papers, discussing certain aspects of child study, the scope of psycho physiology, and the grounds for the medical inspection of schools. The chapter concludes with a bibliography of the general subject covering the current year. The National Educational Association has of late years undertaken several problems of great importance. A committee appointed at the Saratoga meeting in 1892 was charged with the examination of the exist ing courses of study and conditions of the secondary schools-that is to say, all institutions above the elementary schools which undertake to prepare students for college. This "committee of ten," as it is commonly called, reported extensively on its work, and its report was completed and published in the spring of 1894.

Meanwhile, in the superintendents' section of the National Educational Association, another committee was appointed to investigate in a like manner the work of elementary schools. This committee consisted of fifteen members. Three questions were submitted to it: (a) The organization of city school systems; (b) the correlation of studies in elementary education, and (e) the training of teachers. order to facilitate the work the committee was divided into three sections, each consisting of five members, and each of these sections was intrusted with reporting on one of the three questions mentioned. Their reports were laid before the National Educational Association in February, 1895, and were vigorously discussed in the educational and other journals of this country. In order to preserve these documents. I have caused them to be reprinted in this annual report.

One of the members of the committee, Superintendent James M. Greenwood, of Kansas City, Mo., dissents from the majority report in the opinion expressed regarding arithmetic. He has kindly furnished me a number of shorthand reports of arithmetic lessons taken in the schools under his charge. They are of sufficient interest to teachers to give them a place in this volume in the form of a supplement to the committee report. I add also a reprint of an article from the report of the St. Louis schools for the year 1872-73, entitled "Educational values." It contains a somewhat fuller discussion of some of the points relative to the educative value of the several studies in elementary and secondary schools, and in this way may be useful in explaining points that would seem to be obscure in the report of the subcommittee on the correlation of studies.

In the report of the committee of fifteen on the correlation of studies it was partly assumed that the studies of the school fall naturally into five coordinate groups, thus permitting a choice within each group as to the arrangement of its several topics, some finding a place early in the curriculum and others later. These five coordinate groups were, first, mathematics and physics; second, biology, including chiefly the plant and the animal; third, literature and art, including chiefly the study of literary works of art; fourth, grammar and the technical and scientific study of language, leading to such branches as logic and psychology; fifth, history and the study of sociological, political, and social institutions. Each one of these groups, it was assumed, should be represented in the curriculum at all times by some topic suited to the age and previous training of the pupil. This would be demanded by the two kinds of correlation defined in that report as (1) "symmetrical whole of studies in the world of human learning," and (2) "the psychological symmetry, or the whole mind."

The first period of school education is education for culture and education for the purpose of gaining command of the conventionalities of intelligence. These conventionalities are such arts as reading and writing and the use of figures, technicalities of maps, dictionaries, the art of drawing, and all of those semimechanical facilities which enable the child to get access to the intellectual conquests of the race. Later on in the school course, when the pupil passes out of his elementary studies, which partake more of the nature of practice than of theory, he comes in the secondary school and the college to the study of science and the technic necessary for its preservation and communication. All these things belong to the first stage of school instruction, the aim of which is culture. On the other hand, post-graduate work and the work of professional schools have not the aim of culture so much as the aim of fitting the person for a special vocation. In the post-graduate work of universities the demand is for original investigation in special fields. In the professional school the student masters the elements of a particular practice, learning its theory and its art.