28

CONSTITUTION OF CLEISTHENES.

were drawn by lot from the ten tribes, each of which furnished 600. The courts were held in eight or ten different places.

"The parties who had cases to be tried appeared before them and argued their cause. When the verdict was to be rendered, a herald called upon all who thought the accused guilty to hold up their hands, which were counted; then those who thought him innocent did the same; and the votes of the majority decided the case."

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Cleisthenes also first introduced Ostracism. Its purpose was to remove from the city for a definite time those who appeared to be superior to their fellowcitizens, by reason of their wealth, the number of their friends, or any other means of influence." It applied to cases where no crime was committed, and was no personal disgrace.

We have come now (500 B.C.) to an era in Greek history, and it will be well to pause for a moment and review our work. In Sparta we have the reforms of Lycurgus to remember; the Messenian wars, and Sparta's gradual increase in power, until at this time she controlled two-thirds of the Peloponnesus. In Athens we have Draco, Solon, Peisistratus, Hippias, Hipparchus, Harmodius, Aristogeiton, and Cleisthenes, the friend of the common people.

Athenians victorious

CHAPTER IV.

493-47:

THE PERSIANS AND THE FIRST PERSIAN INVASION.

MARATHON, SEPTEMBER 12, 490 B.C.

BEFORE proceeding further in our Greek history, we will turn back and examine the early history of the Persians, since they had so much influence upon Greece.

The Persian empire was founded by Cyrus I. in 558 B.C. Previously to this, the nation was dependent upon the Medes; but Cyrus, who was very ambitious, saw that the power of the Medes was merely a name and not a reality, weakened as they were by high and luxurious living. So the Persians, headed by him, revolted; and instead of being dependent upon the Medes, the scales were turned, and the Medes were conquered and subdued by the Persians. At the death of Cyrus, 529 B.C., the Persian empire included all of Asia west of the Euphrates; also Lydia, which had been governed by Croesus (said to have been the richest monarch in the world), and the Greek cities on the western coast of Asia sia Minor.

Cyrus left his vast kingdom to his son Cambyses, who reigned from 529 to 522 B.C.

He

He conquered Egypt. At his death the kingdom fell to Darius who ruled from 521 to 486 to 486 B.C. was the greatest of Persian monarchs. He had a large

30

THE IONIC REVOLT.

army of over 1,000,000 troops, stationed in different parts of his kingdom, and his navy amounted to 1,000 ships.

He extended his empire by the subjugation of Scythia, 508 B.C. A few years later (500 .c.) the ambitious designs of Darius were interrupted by the revolt of the Ionic cities in Asia Minor, led by Miletus. These cities obtained the aid of Athens and Eretria (a city on the island of Euboea). They collected their forces at Ephesus, and marched straight for Sardis, the capital of Lydia.

The city was captured (499 B.C.) and burned to the ground.

Darius took active measures to put down this revolt; but, when he began to get the better of the Ionic cities in Asia Minor, Athens and Eretria withdrew their forces and went home. As soon as he had subdued the Ionic cities, Darius turned his attention towards Greece, and swore vengeance upon the people who had dared to aid his rebellious subjects. Active preparations were immediately made to fit out an expedition. Mardonius, a general of Darius, was sent out with a large naval force in 493 493 B.C.; but the whole fleet was disabled in a storm off Mount Athos, a dangerous promontory in Chalcidice.

Darius was not discouraged by this failure. He spent the next two years in fitting out a second expedition, placed under the joint command of Datis and Artaphernes

The fleet sailed from the bay of Issus, along the coast of Asia Minor, to Samos. From here it directed its course to Naxos, to punish the bold islanders for not having immediately submitted. The city was burned

FIRST PERSIAN INVASION.

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to the ground, and the inhabitants made slaves. From Naxos the fleet sailed to Delos, where the Persians offered sacrifices to the presiding divinities1 of the island.

Eretria was the next place to which the Persians sailed. For six days they attempted to storm the walls, but in vain. Where force was of no avail, treason succeeded. The upper classes of the city sympathized with the besiegers and opened the gates. The city received no more mercy than Naxos, and the citizens were reduced to slavery. The Persians were elated. Their success thus far had been uninterrupted. Why should they not meet with equal good fortune at Athens? The nearest landing place in Attica was at Marathon, a plain on the eastern coast of Attica (22 miles N.E. of Athens) of about six miles in length, and from three miles to one and one-half miles in breadth, surrounded on all sides, except towards the sea, by high rocky hills. Hippias, who accompanied the Persians, pointed out this plain, and stated that it would afford a fine opportunity for them to manœuvre their cavalry. The whole Persian force amounted to 110,000, of which 100,000 were infantry.

As soon as the fall of Eretria was announced at Athens, a courier was sent to Sparta in all haste to ask for aid. The Spartans promised it, but failed to keep their promise through superstition, as it wanted but a few days of the full moon, and it was contrary to their custom to begin a march at such times. So the Athenians were compelled to fight by themselves.2 The Athenian force, numbering 10,000 infantry, was under

1 Apollo and Artemis were the especial guardians of Delos. 2 1,000 Platæans joined the Athenians just before the battle.

the control of the ten persons who alternated in command, each one holding the power for one day. Miltiades, one of the ten, was thought by his colleagues to be the most efficient general, and was invested by them with supreme command. He advanced to Marathon, and drew up his forces on the rising ground above the plain, with the rear and both flanks protected by high hills.

For nine days the armies stood facing each other without moving. On the morning of the 12th of September, when the supreme command would have regularly fallen to him, Miltiades ordered the Athenians to advance to the attack. His forces were arranged so that members of the same tribe fought side by side, thus stimulating and encouraging one another. The battle lasted for many hours. The Athenian wings were successful from the first, and drove their opponents towards the shore. But the enemy's centre, where were massed picked troops, stood firm. Here the struggle was the fiercest, and the Greeks were repulsed. Miltiades then ordered the victorious wings to return from the pursuit, and to make a combined attack upon the Persian centre in the rear.

The Persians were now speedily routed, and fled to their ships, on which they embarked and put out to

sea.

In this memorable battle the Athenians lost 192; the Persians, 6,400 The Athenian dead were buried on the field of battle in a large mound, which can be seen so this day.

The departure of the Persians was hailed with great joy at Athens. Marathon was ever after a magic word. There was good reason to be proud of it, as it was the