(4) Berlin ought to be free from crime; for it is a well-policed city.

(5) Any well-policed city is likely to be free from crime; Berlin ought, therefore, to be free from crime.

(6) Any well-policed city will be free from crime, and Berlin is well policed.

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Those following the first form differ from it in either having a conditional premise, or in being abbreviated forms, that is, enthymemes. Clauses introduced by because," "since," "for," are usually premises of enthymemes; and those introduced by "hence," "therefore," "consequently," are frequently conclusions in that form of argument. There are two obvious advantages of the enthymeme, conciseness, and the avoid ance of what might seem a mere truism if expressed. In literature and in actual life, this abridged form of argument is by far the most common; for example:

"Blessed are the merciful; for they shall obtain mercy." "Man, being rational, is accountable for his actions." "Classical learning, since it tends to withdraw the mind from low pursuits by creating a taste for intellectual enjoyments, deserves to be promoted."

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Every man should be moderate, for excess causes disease." "If he has never been on a quest for buried treasure, it can be demonstrated that he has never been a child."

"If Pitt had carried out Adam Smith's doctrines of Free Trade, he would have been a great and useful minister; but he did not."

"The several species of brutes being created to prey upon each other, proves that man was intended to prey upon them." "The use of intoxicants should not be prohibited by law; for this would be to restrict individual liberty, and such restriction by law is impolitic."

"It is the fashion just now, as you very well know, to erect so-called Universities, without making any provision in them at

all for Theological chairs. Institutions of this kind exist both here (Ireland) and in England. Such a procedure, though defended by writers of the generation just passed with much plausible argument and not a little wit, seems to me an intellectual absurdity; and my reason for saying so runs, with whatever abruptness, into the form of a syllogism :-A University, I should lay down, by its very name professes to teach universal knowledge; Theology is surely a branch of knowledge; how then is it possible for it to profess all branches of knowledge, and yet to exclude from the subjects of its teaching one which, to say the least, is as important and as large as any of them? I do not see that either premise of this argument is open to exception. " 1

"It has often been asked, what was the cause of the instantaneous and wide-spread popularity of Childe Harold, which Byron himself so well expressed in the saying, ‘I awoke one morning and found myself famous.' Chief among the secondary causes was the warm sympathy between the poet and his readers, the direct interest of his theme for the time. In the spring of 1812 England was in the very crisis of a struggle for existence. It was just before Napoleon set out for Moscow. An English army was standing on the defensive in Portugal, with difficulty holding its own; the nation was trembling for its safety. The dreaded Bonaparte's next movement was uncertain; it was feared that it might be against our own shores. Rumor was busy with alarms. All through the country men were arming and drilling for self-defense. The heart of England was beating high with patriotic resolution.

“What were our poets doing in the midst of all this? Scott, then at the head of the tuneful brotherhood in popular favor, was celebrating the exploits of William of Deloraine and Marmion. . . . Southey was floundering in the dim sea of Hindu mythology. Rogers was content with his Pleasures of Memory.

Moore confined himself to political squibs and wanton little lays for the boudoir. It was no wonder that, when at last a poet did appear whose impulses were not merely literary, who felt in what century he was living, whose artistic creations were 1 Cardinal Newman, The Idaa of a University, 19.

throbbing with the life of his own age, a crowd at once gathered to hear the new singer. There was not a parish in Great Britain in which there was not some household that had a direct personal interest in the scene of the pilgrim's travels some friend, some brother there.' The effect was not confined to England; Byron at once had all Europe as his audience, because he spoke to them on a theme in which they were all deeply concerned. He spoke to them, too, in language which was not merely a naked expression of their most intense feelings; the spell by which he held them was all the stronger that he lifted them with the irresistible power of his song above the passing anxieties of the moment. Loose and rambling as Childe Harold is, it yet had for the time an unconscious art; it entered the absorbing tumult of a hot and feverish struggle, and opened a way in the dark clouds gathering over the combatants through which they could see the blue vault and the shining stars. In that terrible time of change, when every state in Europe was shaken to its foundation, there was a profound meaning in placing before men's eyes the departed greatness of Greece; it rounded off the troubled scene with dramatic propriety. Even the mournful scepticism of Childe Harold was not resented at a time when it lay at the root of every heart to ask, 'Is there a God in heaven to see such desolation, and withhold His hand?' " 1

What these

These examples serve to show some of the ways in which stiff and tedious syllogistic forms of argument may be modified. There is variation in the form of propositions, changed order of premises, transposition of terms, abridgment, amplifi- Examples cation. In the last two, reasons are given for the truth of the premises; but the premises appear as such. No explanation or illustration will be mistaken for premises, nor do subordinate propositions and irrelevant matter conceal premises. The connection.

Show.

1 William Minto on Byron, in Encyclopædia Britannica.

between arguments and conclusion is apparent. Neither metaphors nor equivocal terms confuse the reasoning.

Chains of argument consist either of full syllogisms or, more often, of enthymemes, where the conclusion of one argument is taken for a premise in the next, the conclusion of this for a premise in a third, If every

Chains of and so on to a final conclusion.

Reasoning.

step is guarded, every proposition fully confirmed, the final conclusion may be made peculiarly convincing. Paul uses this form of argument in his letters:

"Now if Christ be preached that he rose from the dead, how say some among you that there is no resurrection of the dead? But if there be no resurrection of the dead, then is Christ not risen; and if Christ be not risen, then is our preaching vain, and your faith is also vain. Yea, and we are found false witnesses of God, because we have testified of God that he raised up Christ.”1

"And we know that all things work together for good to them that love God, to them that are called according to his purpose. For, whom he did foreknow, he also did predestinate; Whom he did predestinate, them he also called; whom he called, them he also justified; and whom he justified, them he also glorified." 2

"It is true, of course, that the immediate reason for accepting the beliefs of revealed religion is that the religion is revealed. But it is thought to be revealed because it was promulgated by teachers who were inspired; the teachers are thought to be inspired because they worked miracles; and they are thought to have worked miracles because there is historical evidence of the fact, which it is supposed would be more than sufficient to produce conviction in any unbiased mind.” 3

The honest arguer as well as the reasoner must be 1 I. Corinthians, xv. 12-15. 2 Ibid, viii. 29-30. See also page 93. 3 Balfour, Foundations of Belief, 184.

Fallacies in

continually on his guard against fallacies, "those unsound modes of arguing which seem to demand conviction, to decide the question in hand, when in reality they do not." Deductive argument Deduction. is very liable to fallacy; for in extended discussions its propositions are easily covered up and disguised with the facts, principles and illustrations put forward to sustain them. They are perverted by using terms in one place with one meaning, in another place with another meaning; by misinterpreting the grammatical construction; by asserting of things singly in one place what is shown to be true of them only collectively in another; or by asserting as true under a condition what would be true only without the condition, and vice versa. Most of these are logical fallacies, and are detected by applying the rules for the syllogism. Deductive reasoning is formally correct, if the conclusion follows from the premises, but it may be materially wrong. It is materially correct only when the premises are true, and the conclusion necessarily follows. In this case its conclusions are irrefutable. In other cases they may be refuted by proving a premise false, or by showing that the conclusion does not necessarily follow, or by proving the conclusion false directly, with stronger evidence than has been used to support the premises.

A common fallacy in deductive reasoning is begging the question, or petitio principii. Of this Jevons says:

"Another apt name for the fallacy is circulus in probando, or a circle in the proof.' It consists in taking the Petitio conclusion itself as one of the premises of an argu- Principii.

ment.

Of course the conclusion of a syllogism must always