ference was demonstration. The earnestness of his own conviction wrought conviction in others. One was convinced, and believed and assented, because it was gratifying, delightful, to think, and feel, and believe, in unison with an intellect of such evident superiority."

He gives an illustration of his own power in this respect, when, in characterizing Jeremiah Mason, he thus enforces the proposition, "Religion is an element of greatness":

"Political eminence and professional fame fade away and die with all things earthly. Nothing of character is really permanent but virtue and personal worth. These remain. Whatever of excellence is wrought into the soul itself belongs to both worlds. Real goodness does not attach itself merely to this life; it points to another world. Political or professional eminence cannot last forever; but a conscience void of offence before God and man is an inheritance for eternity. Religion, therefore, is a necessary and indispensable element in any great human character. There is no living without it. Religion is the tie that connects man with his Creator, and holds him to His throne. If that tie be all sundered, all broken, he floats away, a worthless atom in the Universe; its proper attractions all gone, its destiny thwarted, and its whole future nothing but darkness, desolation and death. A man with no sense of religious duty is he whom the Scriptures describe, in such terse but terrific language, as living without God in the world.' Such a man is out of his proper being, out of the circle of all his duties, out of the circle of all his happiness, and away, far, far away, from the purpose of his creation.” 2

The force and relevancy of the arguments selected to establish a proposition, are of more importance than their number. A few pertinent and decisive arguments are better than a host stopping just short of conclu

Arguments.

siveness. Were all minds convinced by the same kind of reasoning, frequently a single indisputable argument, and usually a few, if not balanced by arguments equally indisputable, would suffice. But as different Number and minds are not convinced by the same argu- Force of ments, and as a decision is usually the balancing of probabilities, numerous and diverse arguments are necessary. Weak arguments, however, should be rejected. They excite suspicion and lessen the force of valid arguments with which they are connected. Weak and strong are relative terms, however, depending on what is to be proved and what mind is to be convinced.

Subjects.

"That which in one class of subjects would be of great force, would be feeble in another class. Extrinsic proof is usually regarded as of inferior value. In theoretical subjects it holds, if admitted at all, a subordinate place; but when the On Different question is one of fact, it is more decisive than any other. In theological discussions the appeal is to the teachings of Scripture; in legal proceedings, to the decisions of the courts; in both authority is of supreme importance. When the question is as to a future event, the a priori argument is the most decisive: analogy and example are also employed. These kinds of proof are therefore the most important in senatorial eloquence, which is occupied chiefly with questions of expediency. When the aim is to estab lish the presence of a certain cause, the a posteriori argument is most effective; when the probability of a past event is to be shown, testimony is preferred, and after it, the other arguments a posteriori. These, ac

*

cordingly, are the most important forms of proof in judicial oratory."

What may be complete proof to those acquainted with the subject, might have no effect on an ignorant mind. Not only degree of intelligence but ability to give atten

Minds.

tion must be considered. Candid minds open To Different to conviction, and fair minds ready to weigh whatever seems worthy of consideration, may be influenced by what would not touch the prejudiced, the bigoted or the captious. What is true of the kind of arguments, as related to different persons, is to a certain extent true also of the order of presentation. Only the most general principles can be suggested. The details must be left to the speaker, who is supposed to know his audience and his occasion.

Example,

Sign.

Some propositions, then, and some occasions, demand one class of arguments, and some another; but usually two or all three classes are used. It has been seen that Antecedent in scientific investigation a certain order of Probability, procedure is maintained.2 This order is generally adopted for literary argument also. That order has been found most effective which begins with arguments from antecedent probability, follows these with arguments from example, and follows examples with arguments from sign. From certain established principles, causes or motives with their known influences and tendencies, a hypothesis is formed as to what is likely to be. Instances, essentially like the case in hand, are cited to show the more or less certain operation of these causes. Particular signs are adduced to show that what is supposed to occur, what has oc

1 Hepburn, Manual of Rhetoric, 197. 2 Page 129.

curred in the similar cases, does actually occur in the present case.

Reasons for

this order.

The reasons for this order are obvious. We may say that the arguments from antecedent probability are explanatory of the whole case and of the principle involved; and so they are the natural preparation for the other arguments. If they were to come last they might be thought not so much arguments as explanations of what had been supposed proved by the other arguments, examples and signs; but if a listener deemed a fact not proved, he would care little for explanation. If examples were placed first the hearer might not see their pertinence not knowing the principle under which they were adduced. "Coming first, arguments from antecedent probability raise a presumption in favor of the proposition to be proved. This presumption is strengthened by arguments from example, which furnish evidence concerning similar occurrences, and by those from sign, which furnish evidence tending to show that what was likely to occur did occur. Arguments from antecedent probability, since they suggest a cause or causes, point to the principle which is applicable to the case in hand; those from example furnish instances of its application in other cases; those from sign tend to prove that it applies in the present case." 1

This order seems the most natural. The scientist uses it.2 The jurist uses it. He first puts forward a theory of the case, depending on a general principle; then he cites other cases, examples of the application of this principle; then he produces special signs of

1 A. S. Hill, Principles of Rhetoric, 383.

2 Pages 113, 129.

This Order Generally Adopted.

the fact in this case. The medical writer and the practitioner use it. It is the method in deliberative oratory. It may be the method of an entire discourse, or of those parts of a discourse which sustain any single subordinate proposition. In the Speech on Conciliation, Burke first gives the the causes which would keep the Americans from submission, and the advantages, which, if turned to English account, should be motives for conciliation on the part of the English,growing population, prosperity, i. e. tendency towards independence, agriculture, trade, fisheries, and American love of liberty. Then after showing by various combinations of arguments that conciliation is the only practical, if not the only possible way of dealing successfully with the Colonies, he adduces the examples of Ireland, Wales, Durham and Chester. He often follows this order in a single paragraph. "The Americans,” he argues," will not submit ; for among other things they are devoted to the principles of personal liberty; we should expect this, for love of liberty is a fundamental element of their religion, the dissidence of dissent, the protestantism of the Protestant religion, this religion, under a variety of denominations, agreeing in nothing but in the communion of the spirit of liberty."

"Sir, I can perceive by their manner that some gentlemen object to the latitude of this description, because in the Southern Colonies the Church of England forms a large body, and has a regular establishment. It is certainly true. There is, however, a circumstance attending these Colonies which, in my opinion, fully counterbalances this difference, and makes the spirit of liberty still more high and haughty than in those to the northward. It is that in Virginia and the Carolinas they have a vast multitude of slaves. Where this is the case