also characterize every phase of work in a manual-training course which requires an intelligent use of tools and materials in constructive processes, in accordance with sound educational principles. Therefore, it follows that the first stage in the mastery of trade processes, in its rudimentary form at least, is found in all manual-training courses based on sound educational principles and adequate in scope, and that, with proper equipment and competent teaching force, manual training may be extended so as to apply the work of this stage to a considerable number of trades. The second stage may be completed in the shop, in the trade school, or in both.

Manual training in its earlier stages must of necessity be carried on without direct reference or relation to the development of skill in any particular vocation. The training which it gives in close observation of an object to be produced from any given material or as the result of effort in the construction of that object, or determination of wherein the effort has failed and what must be done thru further effort to remedy the failure, the training of the hand to execute mental judgments, furnish a preliminary preparation of high value as a basis for intelligent workmanship which employs the hands later on. In the later development of manual training it may be so organized as to bear a very definite relation to certain processes largely employed in the industrial world, and at the same time to secure the kind of mental training needed for the proper development of the individual. In a general way it may be said that the following things are essential for industrial efficiency in the workman:

1. Habits of close observation.

2. A high ideal as to what constitutes honesty in workmanship.

3. Habits of accuracy in work.

4. Comprehension of what is good in design as related to use in connection with the work in hand.

5. Knowledge of materials best adapted to different forms and types of construction. 6. Knowledge of construction processes in the treatment of materials.

7. Skill in the care of tools and in their use in industrial processes, and skill in using machinery.

8. Skill in freehand and mechanical drawing.

The foregoing statements are general, but specific applications may be made of them so far as they apply to any particular industrial process or trade.

The practical problem for any community in organizing work in manual training in the public schools so that it may bear the most direct and immediate relation to the industrial efficiency of the boys on leaving school is to consider, first, the manufacturing industries of the community where skill in operation is required and which are likely to furnish employment for the boys upon their leaving school; and then to determine the kind of training thru which the boys will make the greatest progress toward skill in the special industry or industries.

In case there are no manufacturing industries in the community in which the school is located, and it is still desired to give training which counts most largely for industrial efficiency within the particular trades or skilled industries which are likely to prove most attractive to the boys of the community, those trades or industries are to be considered.

With the incorporation of a properly organized manual-training course as a part of the work in the public schools, greater inducements to pupils to remain in school will be presented than exist under present conditions; and as a result pupils will remain in school longer, will get a broader training, and in acquiring every one of the eight requisites I have enumerated as essential for industrial efficiency in the workman they will have made some progress, and in all subjects except those in which skill in the use of machinery is considered they will have made very decided advancement.

NURTURE AND PROTECTION OF PHYSICAL WELLBEING OF PUBLIC-SCHOOL PUPILS

I. HOW CAN THE SCHOOL MAKE CONTRIBUTION OF PERMANENT VALUE TO PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT?

LUTHER H. GULICK, DIRECTOR OF PHYSICAL TRAINING
PUBLIC SCHOOLS, NEW YORK CITY

During the past century and to an ever-increasing degree within the past quarter-century the school has had thrust upon it a fundamental, new problem and a new responsibility: fundamental, because education is not worth while if it is secured at the sacrifice of health; new, because only recently has education come to dominate the great bulk of the child's waking time. If the permanent result of these new conditions is not to be the uprearing of a generation of physically undesirable citizens, the school must see to it that the health interests of the pupils are as energetically and as efficiently looked after as are any other parts of the school work. This involves the creation in each school system of a department of school hygiene or some other organization for the adequate care of this set of needs.

Among the reasons for the organizing of a Department of School Hygiene within each department of education the following may be stated as a fundamental principle:

The great increase in the length of the school year and the changes in the character of the child's physical environment make attention to physical health necessary now as it has never been before.

The schools do not differ from other institutions of the time in having undergone profound changes during the past century. One hundred years ago, 5 per cent. of the people of the United States lived in cities of 8,000, or over, population; now 36 per cent. of the people live in such cities.

Then, few children had more than three months' schooling per year; now, city children have ten months' schooling per year.

Then, the recesses were out of doors; now, only a limited number of city schools have space in which the children can take such outdoor games that were possible in the old school yard.

Then, practically all the pupils had to walk considerable distances to and from school; now, city children have to walk a few blocks only.

Then, there was a large variety of outdoor muscular work for the children to do on the farm—aiding in doing the chores, milking the cows, getting the horses, caring for the poultry, tending the garden; now, the bulk of the work is done by machinery. It is no longer possible for a large percentage of the city children to do their needful muscular work by helping their parents.

Then, in the schools there were taught chiefly the three R's; now, because of these changed conditions of daily life, it has been found necessary to introduce into the schools muscular exercises, manual training, nature-study, cooking, dressmaking and the like.

Then, a considerable territory had to be drained to get enough children to make the small country school; now, in the thickly settled areas of cities great school buildings

are erected on nearly every block. The constant hearing of noise, the lack of quiet, the lights in the houses, and on the streets at night-these are all relatively new and evil. Then, we had children helping their parents; now, we have child-labor.

All these make a profound contrast between former conditions and those which obtain now.

We are told that 25 or 30 per cent. of the school children have eye deformities sufficiently serious to interfere with their school progress. It is the general opinion that this condition is directly related to the unwise treatment of the eyes in school life.

It has been discovered that a very considerable percentage of the children have such difficulties with the nose and throat as to interfere with proper circulation or proper respiration. A very large number of children do not have such care at home as insures their coming to school cleanly in person. The hearing of quite a number of children is below par, so that they fail to take advantage of much of the oral instruction that is given. Some of the children develop crooked backs, or scoliosis; occasional cases of chorea have been discovered. Sensational stories have been told with reference to the malnutrition of city school children. Allowing for all the exaggeration that there may be, it is undoubtedly true that there is a remarkable number of children who, because of unwise feeding or of insufficient feeding, are in a condition of vitality too low to profit by the school education. More than half of all the children in the schools have sufficiently decayed teeth to account for many of the neurotics and for a great deal of the malnutrition.

From 30 to 40 per cent. of all the children in the middle grades are one, two, or three years behind their grades. This in many cases is due to some physical cause.

To help remedy this situation, there needs to be a Department of School Hygiene.

Attention to the physical wellbeing of school children would result in great and immediate economy.

In all of our great cities, a considerable proportion of the school children are above the normal age for the grades. According to the report of the city superintendent of schools of New York City for the year ending July 31, 1907, the number of children in the public schools above the normal age on June 30, 1907, was as follows:

It is difficult to estimate the direct money cost to the school system of these over-age pupils. Some of them are only one year over age, while many more are two, three, four, and even five years older than they should be for the grades they are in. For safety let us estimate that only 50 per cent. or 88,262

such children in New York are behind their grades on account of defects which might be remedied. At the average cost of tuition last year-$30the loss to the city amounts to $2,647,860, for each year that these children fail to make progress.

A further and important consideration is that if the number of backward children was reduced by half, the necessity for part-time classes would be done away with.

The Americanizing of the large alien population involves their receiving new ideals and new habits of life with reference to health and the care of their own children.

A large fraction of the children who are in our city public schools either themselves come from non-English speaking countries, or are the children of those who come from those countries. How large a proportion of the population of our great cities is made up of persons of foreign parentage is not generally realized. The facts as told in the late census in regard to some of our leading cities are as follows:

POPULATION OF NATIVE AND FOREIGN PARENTAGE IN 1900

The public schools are a primary factor in the development in these persons of ideals and feelings that are basal to life in this republic. The training with reference to efficient living, right ideals of health, and the care of children needs to be given to these children as it does not need to be given to the native-born American citizen, whose social heredity carries such basal information.

This education can best come thru the example of a Department of School Hygiene in its care of physical health.

The present state of medical knowledge allows us to aid in educational matters in a way and to a degree never before possible.

During the past generation medicine has been becoming scientific. Our knowledge of preventive medicine has developed almost entirely within this generation.

By means of this new medical knowledge it is possible for the skillful physician to discover and remove many conditions prejudicial to health and education, which were beyond our reach a century or so ago. Boards of education should avail themselves of this new development of medical science. Problems before us indicate the need of expert medical counsel. Some of the problems are as follows:

Posture. The tendency of the children to acquire bad habits of posture-malposition of the spine, with resulting interference with circulation, respiration, and digestion, seems

to be inevitable so long as the present hours of sitting still remain. Thus, school furniture of a proper character is important.

Vision. It is not enough for us to discover the cases of ocular deformity which are occurring in the schools. What we need to know, if possible, are the exact causes of such deformities.

Nose and throat.-There seems to be a great increase in the number of children having difficulties with the nose and throat. Is this due to general disability, to dust in the school rooms, to malnutrition, or to any other removable cause? What are the best ways of handling these difficulties?

Nutrition and growth. We believe that there are many children who fail to profit by their education because they do not have enough nutrition.

Nervous diseases.-Many children have the beginnings of nervous diseases which interfere with their school life, and which are more or less serious in their subsequent meaning. We need to know the causes of these diversions from the normal and the best means of meeting them.

Fatigue. What are the conditions for the most efficient study on the part of the pupil, i. e., can a child do more in eight hours than in seven? Can he do more in seven hours than in six, or the reverse? We have no accurate information in answer to these questions, nor can such information be secured easily. It demands the most expert work and wide acquaintance with what is being done elsewhere.

In the modern scientific business life the technical expert has a permanent place. The erection of the modern city structure involves a co-operation of engineering and architecture as never before. The electrical and mining work being done involves groups of experts, each connected with some special phase of the subject. The same applies to business. The general business man has vanished; his place has been taken by experts in various lines. The school boards have had thrust upon them new problems, as have business and science. The erection of school buildings has involved the work of skilled architects. The size of the timbers that will support the roof of a given span, the strength of the structure in relation to its height-these are technical questions of architecture and engineering.

Questions of stress and strain of material have thus come within the purview of one of the subdivisions of the work of boards of education. Similarly, boards of education have been pushed into the business world in the purchasing of their supplies. The hundreds of different kinds of material used in all the grades in all of the schools, the coal for fuel, and the like, involve for their wise purchase and administration the same buying expert that is demanded for any business house. Questions as to the purchasing of coal and other commodities are not questions of psychology and pedagogy, but are questions of business. In what quantities, and what to buy, and when to have delivery made, what systems of auditing and accounting to adopt-these are technical questions and they must be met by the technical business expert.

It is my opinion that the group of problems centering about the health of school children demands technical treatment of a nature similar to that required for the departments whose duties I have just sketched. If the children's eyes are becoming defective because of lack of wisdom in the choice of type, the