Fourth: The school day should be lengthened in order to provide time for new types of laboratory work and more constructive drawing and design.

Fifth: The time schedule and the curriculum should be divided substantially as follows:

One recitation and one double laboratory period every day during the entire four years should be devoted to applied science and its applications to the various departments of industry. At least a double period every day should be devoted to shop practice and drawing, and, in the latter part of the course, even more time should be found for constructive drawing and genuine design. The balance of the time should be divided among · English, history, economics, and pure and applied mathematics.

Sixth: The backbone of the school curriculum, the thing that gives it its prime interest, power, and vitality, should become the applied science and the applied science laboratory. It is not the actual doing of things nearly so much as it is the discovery of the "whys" that underlie industry that gives fascination and interest. It should be the aim of the school to fit its graduates for the subordinate positions of responsibility in industry, for the positions of the "non-commissioned officer," as the engineering schools fit men to become "captains" of industry. The spirit of the entire curriculum should be that of experimentation and investigation, trial and test, as a necessary foundation for economic production of surpassing excellence and efficiency.

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION-ITS TERMINOLOGY

CARROLL G. PEARSE, PRESIDENT, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, MILWAUKEE, WIS.

I do not think it will be expected that such a paper as this shall extend to great length. Neither do I hope that any definitions set forth will have the finish and quality which might be expected of the lexicographer. I shall hope, however, that the classifications and distinctions may, in general, be accepted as sound. I shall be contented to let time and the polishing effect of use establish their verbal form.

In beginning the discussion, it seems necessary to pay some attention to some terms which are frequently misused either in connection with vocational education or in common speech.

Manual Training is often spoken of as tho it were vocational education, and many persons seem to think that vocational education consists in manual training. Manual training is the name properly given in nonvocational schools to those exercises which involve the use of the hand. Manual training gives some hand skill in the use of hand tools as used in construction and in the arts of representation; but its purpose is purely educational, and any skill thus attained is incidental. The training is intended to give a better all-round development of the brain and the other

bodily organs and is not intended to prepare for, or lead to, any particular employment or vocation in which hand skill is required.

Industrial Education is sometimes vocational and sometimes nonvocational. Speaking here of that which is non-vocational, such training usually involves a considerable amount of manual training of various kinds; it also deals with other processes and information relating to, or dealing with, industries. Such training may serve merely to make the student generally intelligent or more intelligently interested in industry, or it may serve to show him whether he has taste for such employment and such ability in this direction that it seems advisable to choose some special part of that field as a vocation. But such industrial training is not intended and does not serve to fit the student for any particular employment or vocation.

Vocational Education is to fit and train students for particular vocations or employments, usually to be followed as a means of livelihood. Some kinds of vocational education have long been recognized as a proper part of an educational system.

Professional Vocational Education has long been carried on in the universities and professional schools in fitting doctors, lawyers, theologians, and engineers for their future careers. Architects, artists, and musicians enjoy these same advantages.

Commercial Vocational Education has now been completely recognized as necessary. Commerce among us is easily separated into two partsthat which deals with exchanges of products and values, and that which has to do with recording those exchanges or transactions. Our secondary and higher schools in thousands of cities train students for commercial vocations. Our high schools have so far concerned themselves chiefly with training for the recording of commercial exchanges and transactions; they send out competent stenographers, bookkeepers, and cashiers. Our higher schools also give ample education in the organization of commerce, the sources of its materials, and the conduct of its exchanges and transactions.

Industrial Vocational Education is a newer and more recently recognized responsibility of the schools. Until within a generation or two, this kind of education was given at the forge, the workbench, the loom, the potter's wheel. It is not necessary to discuss the causes of the change in the situation; suffice it to say that today few deny the necessity or the practicability of giving to our youth in schools that education and training which are necessary to make them competent and skilled to enter industrial trades and vocations.

Trade Education is the first form of industrial vocational education which claims attention. To some extent this education is still being given. in shops and industrial establishments, where, by the time-honored plan of having the apprentice trained by the journeyman or the master-workman, or partly by this plan and partly by schools or classes within the establishment for the education of their apprentices, the mysteries and the practices

of the craft are imparted; but conditions are such that the trade school, as a part of the public educational system, daily looms more important. It has been sufficiently demonstrated that trades both for men and for women can be imparted in a thoroly effective manner in well-conducted trade schools. The apprentice-students sent out are entirely competent to take up the work of the craft as beginning journeymen. There is no doubt that an increasing proportion of trade education will be given in trade schools.

Occupational Education is that training for certain work or certain operations or processes which are not extensive or comprehensive enough to constitute a trade or vocation, and yet for which training within their limited scope is necessary if the worker is to do well and prove a valuable and satisfactory employee. Training of this kind will ordinarily be most advantageously given in the plant where the worker is employed and where he is to be used. Training to perform a single process in manufacture, or a few simple connected processes, or to handle a machine or two or three related machines, is no complex or difficult problem; yet as trades are more broken up, and the work and the processes in manufacturing plants are more and more subdivided and specialized, and as more and more men are relegated to spend their time upon a single or a few processes, these little fragments of vocational training will become increasingly important and necessary, and, tho some of this teaching may constitute proper subjectmatter for continuation school work, most good-sized plants at least will no doubt find it advantageous to do it within their own walls.

Agricultural Education is a form of industrial vocational education that each day assumes more importance. Formerly, like the mechanical trades, it was taught by a system of apprenticeship, informal, but not very different, in essence, from apprenticeship in the trades. Schools of agriculture, primary and secondary, are turning the occupation of the farmer into a skilled handicraft, involving a far greater modicum of scientific knowledge than most handicrafts; while higher schools of agriculture are training men as scientifically and extensively as for the heretofore recognized learned professions.

Pre-vocational Education is a term which has had very queer and varied uses. Correctly speaking, any education received before undertaking specific training for a vocation, in the elementary school, the high school, the college, is pre-vocational education. Industrial education, taken to obtain an understanding of the field of industrial vocations and to permit the student to decide whether he will select such a vocation, perhaps properly might be called pre-vocational. Certainly if this training should be found an asset, advancing the student on the way to a vocation, it would be such. In many instances, a plan by which dull or troublesome pupils are separated from their mates and allowed to putter with tools to amuse them and perhaps keep them in school has been called by this name.

Since this work has no definite purpose and leads to nothing concreteserving generally the purpose of busy-work-the term "pre-vocational" given particularly to such a plan is clearly misapplied. In numerous instances, the term "pre-vocational" has been applied to schools or classes of elementary grade where pupils were receiving specific training for particular employment or jobs which they wished to get, or for which certain classes of employers wished to get them. Of course, such training could not in any case be in any real sense vocational, since such preparation could be only for certain operations or processes or tasks, never for any real vocation. A more proper term would be "pre-occupational," since the effect of this training could be only to relieve the future employer of such small training for the particular tasks, in preparation for work in his establishment, as would otherwise be necessary, and to render this child labor more immediately profitable to him; such training should certainly not be allowed to encroach upon the time and the studies of the elementary school.

Continuation Education becomes necessary when young people leave school prematurely to become wage-earners. Hundreds of thousands of them do so yearly, few with adequate preparation for the duties of lifeeither in the way of general knowledge and intelligence or in preparation for any vocation. From the nature of the situation, then, there must be both Non-vocational Continuation Education and Vocational Continuation Education.

Non-vocational Continuation Education is concerned with making up arrears in general education and in completing the equipment necessary for good citizenship.

Vocational Continuation Education deals first with Trade Continuation Education. Many young men who are apprentices or journeymen come into these schools to advance themselves in knowledge of their trade, both in collateral knowledge-the drawing, mathematics, and science which apply to the trade and also in various special processes and the use of certain tools which they are delayed in reaching or cannot get in their own shops. Again, many youths wish to leave the job into which they have fallen, and numbers of these will take advantage of the continuation school to begin work in the acquisition of a trade which they desire to take up.

Continuation Occupational Education of industrial character is certain to have a very large place. Many of the smaller establishments cannot very well, and numerous larger establishments will not, do the teaching and coaching which these young workers need, either to improve their earning power in their present positions or to fit them for promotion to better jobs. For these the continuation school offers the best opportunity.

Commercial Continuation Education will be greatly in demand. This is needed to assist to better training stenographers, bookkeepers, salesmen, and saleswomen; also in helping into these, which may be considered real vocations, those youths who are working at mere "jobs" in which there is little

hope of future advancement. There is room also for occupational commercial work. Help can be given to those who are merely holding jobs to make them more efficient in their jobs or able to be advanced into better jobs.

Professional Continuation Education will be needed and demanded. No small number of young persons have aspirations to enter the professions even tho at present they are in commercial or industrial vocations or merely holding jobs. The continuation schools offer to all those who have courage and perseverance an open door, out and up.

Vocational Guidance cannot be far separated from vocational education. Information about occupations must be placed at the service of boys and girls and their parents to help them judge which vocations are worth entering. Information as to the boy himself may very well be supplied to him and to his parents, so that they may better decide which occupation he will be wise to choose. Such information and counsel are greatly needed also by those young people who have merely obtained jobs and need to choose and begin to prepare themselves for occupations or vocations which hold out some reasonable hope of future growth and advancement.

THE PLACE OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN A RATIONAL SCHOOL SYSTEM

ARTHUR H. CHAMBERLAIN, SECRETARY, CALIFORNIA COUNCIL OF
EDUCATION, SAN FRANCISCO, CAL.

Time was when a discussion of the place of industrial education in a rational school system would have been attempted by anyone laying claims to an educational philosophy or posing as an expert. Today one pauses to ask the question as to what constitutes a rational school system and what industrial education comprehends.

'Education as a science is every day moving forward. Discussion, however, moves in cycles. Today we have before us, in another form, the same question that confronted this department seventeen years ago at the Milwaukee meeting. Today we find ourselves in need of clear definitions as we did then. That we are moving forward is shown by the fact that the definitions of seventeen years ago do not square with the needs and practices of today.

The National Council of Education has, within a day or two, considered the relation of the cultural to the practical. A rational school system is, in the best sense, practical-not mechanical, but practical. The thing which has not and cannot have a direct relation to the life at school or the life following school is not practical. That which is practical, that is, useful in the best sense, is cultural. Use, in some form or another, determines culture. There can be no separation of the two.