on the bank, and thought he had gained the battle, when he obtained an opportunity of fighting. In the equestrian engagement which followed, the Macedonians owed much to their skilful evolutions and discipline; still more to their strength and courage, and not a little to the excellence of their weapons, which, being made of the cornel-tree, far surpassed the brittle javelins of the enemy.

Meanwhile Parmenio crossed the Granicus, at the head of the left wing, with equal success, but unequal glory, because Alexander had already proved, by his example, that the difficulty might be overcome, which would have otherwise appeared insurmountable. The attention of the enemy was so deeply engaged by the successive attacks of the cavalry, that they seem not to have made much opposition to the passage of the phalanx. But before this powerful body of infantry had crossed the river, the Macedonian horse had already reaped the fairest honours of the field. Alexander animated them by his presence, and, after performing all the duties of a great general, displayed such personal acts of prowess as will be more readily admired than believed by the modern reader. But in the close combats of antiquity, the forces, when once thoroughly engaged, might be safely abandoned to the direction of their own resentment and courage, while the commanders displayed the peculiar accomplishments to which they had been trained from their youth. In the left wing the Persians had begun to give way before the Grecian cavalry before the Macedonian infantry had completely passed the river. The stern aspect of the phalanx, shining in steel and bristling with spears, confirmed the victory. Above a thousand Persian horse were slain in the pursuit. The foot, consisting chiefly in Greek mercenaries, still continued in their first position, not firm, but inactive, petrified by astonishment, not steady through resolution. While the

phalanx attacked them in front, the victorious cavalry assailed their flanks. Surrounded on all sides, they fell an easy prey; two thousand surrendered prisoners; the rest all perished, unless a few stragglers perchance lurked among the slain.

This great battle threw open a large amount of fertile territory to Alexander; but the Persian empire was not yet conquered. Darius collected his forces, and confronted Alexander on the bay of Issus, near the town of that name.

Alexander set his army in motion at dawn. Before reaching the river Pinarus, on the opposite bank of which the enemy were encamped, the Macedonians had formed in order of battle, Alexander leading the right wing, and the left being commanded by Parmenio.

They continued to advance, till their right was flanked by a mountain, and their left by the sea, from which Parmenio was ordered not to recede. Darius being apprised of the enemy's approach, detached a body of fifty thousand cavalry and light infantry across the Pinarus, that the remainder might have room to form without confusion. His Greek mercenaries, amounting to thirty thousand, he posted directly opposite to the Macedonian phalanx. The Greeks were flanked on both sides by double that number of Barbarians, also heavy armed. The nature of the ground admitted not more troops to be ranged in front; but as the mountain on Alexander's left sloped inwards, Darius placed on that sinuosity twenty thousand men, who could see the enemy's rear, though it appears not that they could advance against them. Behind the first line the rest of the Barbarians were ranged, according to their various nations, in close and unserviceable ranks; Darius being everywhere encumbered by the vastness of a machine, which he had not skill to wield.

His pusillanimity was more fatal than his ignorance. When he perceived the

Macedonians advancing, he commanded. his men to maintain their post on the Pinarus, the bank of which was in some places high and steep; where the access seemed easier, he gave orders to raise a rampart; precautions which showed the enemy, that even before the battle began, the mind of Darius was already conquered. Alexander, meanwhile, rode along the ranks, exhorting, by name, not only the commanders of the several brigades, but the tribunes and inferior officers, and even such captains of the auxiliaries as were distinguished by rank, or ennobled by merit. Perceiving it necessary to moderate the martial ardour that prevailed, he commanded his forces to advance with a regular and slow step, lest the phalanx should fluctuate through too eager a contention. Their motion quickened as they proceeded within reach of the enemy's darts. Alexander, with those around him, then sprung into the river. Their impetuosity frightened the Barbarians, who scarcely waited the first shock. But the Greek mercenaries, perceiving that by the rapidity and success of Alexander's assault, the Macedonians were bent towards the right wing, which was separated from the centre, seized the decisive moment of rushing into the interval, where the phalanx was disjointed. A fierce engagement ensued, the Greeks eager to regain the honour of their name, the Macedonians ambitious to maintain the unsullied glory of the phalanx. This desperate action. proved fatal to Ptolemy, the son of Seleucus, and other officers of distinction, to the number of a hundred and twenty.

Meanwhile, the Macedonian right wing having repelled the enemy with great slaughter, wheeled to the left, and, animated by recent victory, finally prevailed against the obstinacy of the Greeks. The remaining Persian forces speedily fled on hearing that Darius had quitted the field. The loss of the Persians was computed at a hundred and ten thousand.

The Persian camp afforded abundant proof of Asiatic luxury and opulence. It contained, however, in money but three thousand talents; the magnificent treasures, which accompanied the great king, being deposited, previous to the battle, in the neighbouring city of Damascus. This inestimable booty was afterwards seized by order of Alexander, who found in the camp a booty more precious-the wife and daughters of Darius, his mother Sysigambis, and his infant son. In an age when prisoners of war were synonymous with slaves, Alexander behaved to his royal captives. with the tenderness of a parent, blended. with the respect of a son. In his chaste attention to Statira, the fairest beauty of the East, his conduct forms a remarkable contrast with that of his admired Achilles, whom he equalled in valour, but far surpassed in humanity. These illustrious princesses bore their own misfortunes with patience, but burst into dreadful lamentations when informed by a eunuch that he had seen the mantle of Darius in the hands of a Macedonian soldier." Alexander sent to assure them that Darius yet lived; and next day visited them in person, and generously did all he could to assuage their natural anguish.

SIEGE

EFORE completing his conquest of the Persian empire, Alexander determined to reduce the independent city of Tyre, and to subdue Egypt. He therefore informed a deputation of citizens that he intended shortly to enter their city, and sacrifice there to Hercules-a polite intimation, we may suppose, that he intended to conquer the city.

Upon this alarming intelligence, the Tyrians discovered equal firmness and prudence. A second embassy assured Alexander of their unalterable respect, but at the same time communicated to him their determined resolution, that neither the Persians nor the Mace

donians should ever enter their walls. This boldness appears remarkable in a nation of merchants, long unaccustomed to war. But the resources of their wealth and commerce seem to have elevated the courage, instead of softening the character, of the Tyrians. Their city, which, in the language of the East, was styled the eldest daughter of Sidon, had long reigned queen of the sea. The purple shell-fish, which is found in great abundance on their coast, early gave them possession of that lucrative trade, and confined chiefly to the Tyrians the advantage of clothing the princes and nobles in most civilised countries of antiquity. Tyre was separated from the continent by a frith half a mile broad; its walls exceeded a hundred feet in height, and extended eighteen miles in circumference. The convenience of its

rise to the improbable fiction of his having conquered Arabia. By incredible exertions the mole was at length built, and the battering engines were erected. The arrival of four thousand Peloponnesian forces seasonably reinforced Alexander, and revived. the courage of his troops, exhausted by fatigue and dejected by defeat. At the same time the fleets of the maritime provinces which he had subdued, came to offer their assistance in an undertaking which could scarcely have proved successful while the Tyrians commanded the sea.

The squadrons of Lower Asia were joined by the naval force of Rhodes and Cyprus. The whole armament of Alexander amounted to two hundred and twenty-four vessels, so that the Tyrians, who hitherto confided in their fleet, now retired behind the defences of their ports for safety.

From the walls the Tyrians now cast down huge stones into the sea, and thus hindered access to the walls. Before the work of clearing these away could be accomplished, they advanced in covered vessels, and cut the cables of the hulks employed in that laborious service. Alexander commanded a squadron to advance and repel the Tyrians. Yet even this did not facilitate the removal of the bar; for the islanders, being expert divers, plunged under water, and again cutting the cables, set the Macedonian vessels adrift. It thus became necessary to prepare chains, which were used instead of ropes; by which contrivance the hulks were secured in firm anchorage, the bank of stones was removed, and the battering engines advanced to the walls.

In this extremity the Tyrians, still trusting to their courage, determined to attack the Cyprian squadron, stationed at the mouth of the harbour which looked towards Sidon. The boldness of this design could only be surpassed by the deliberate valour with which it was

carried into execution. The mouth of the haven they had previously covered with spread sails, to conceal their operations from the enemy. The hour of attack was fixed at midday, at which time the Greeks and Macedonians were usually employed in private affairs, and Alexander commonly retired to his pavilion. The best sailing vessels were carefully selected from the whole fleet. At first they came forth in a line, slowly and silently; but having proceeded within sight of the Cyprians, they at once clashed their oars, raised a shout, and advanced abreast of each other to the attack. Several of the enemy's ships. were sunk at the first shock; and it was only after a desperate combat that the Tyrians were driven back. But the siege was steadily pushed on. From towers equal in height to the walls, the Greeks and Macedonians fought hand to hand with the enemy. By throwing spontoons across, the bravest sometimes passed over, even to the battlements. The vigour of the attack was opposed by as vigorous a resistance. The shock of the battering engines was deadened by green hides and coverlets of wool, and whenever an opening was effected the bravest combatants advanced to defend the breach. But time and fatigue, which exhausted the vigour of the enemy, only confirmed. the perseverance of Alexander. On the third day the engines assailed the walls. A wide breach being effected, Alexander commanded the hulks which carried the engines to retire, and others bearing the scaling-ladders to advance, that his soldiers might enter the town over the ruins. The targeteers, headed by Admetus, first mounted the breach. This gallant commander was slain by a spear; but Alexander in person now led the attack. The city was now at length subdued, after a siege of seven months' duration and after the loss of many valuable lives.