for their lustrous purples, the Tyrian being obtained from a shell fish, as was also the red of Tarentum, and the Cretan tincture from a plant which Theophrastus, Dioscorides, and Pliny respectively call τὸ πόντιον φύκος, φύκος θαλάσσιον, phycos thalassion, but which was, however, not a seaweed, but a lichen, identical probably with one of the species from which the Orchil purple of modern art is prepared. That the celebrated "purple" of the ancients was amethystine or violet in hue, and not red, is directly proved by their comparing the Tyrian with the Cretan purple, the latter of which they considered the more brilliant. Herodotus tells of the admiration of Darius for the "scarlet cloak " [Rawlinson, χλανίς Tuppá—“ amiculum rutilum" Latin translation] of Syloson, the Samian, the fiery colour of which was probably derived from Kermes, and which certainly would not have excited the cupidity of Darius had the dye of Tyre been red. From the Arabic name of the insect, kirmij, comes not only cramoisy and carmine, but also vermeil, vermilion. The Arabs received both the insect and its name from Armenia, and kirmij is derived from quer mes, and means originally "oak berry." Dioscorides describes it under the name of kókкo; ßapiký; and Pliny says of it, "est autem genus ex eo in Attica fere et Asia (Proconsulari) nascens, celerrime "in vermiculum se mutans, quod ideo solecion vocant " [xxiv. 4]. Vermilion is undoubtedly the same word as vermiculum. Vermiculum, in fact, in the middle ages, signified Kermes," and on "that account cloth dyed with them was called vermiculata," and in England formerly "vermilions." The French term vermilion also originally signified Kermes, and from it was subsequently transferred to red sulphuret of mercury or cinnabar, a pigment known from the earliest times, it being mentioned by Jeremiah in his description of a house "ceiled with cedar "and painted with vermilion [ch. xxii. 14]; and by Ezekiel [xxiii. 14], when referring to the carvings of "men portrayed upon the wall, the images of the Chaldæans portrayed "with vermilion," which portraitures in carving and in paint have survived to our time.

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Textile fabrics frequently take their names from the place where they first acquired excellence, and retain them long after the local manufacture has been transferred elsewhere, and sometimes the name itself is transferred to altogether another style of manufacture. Thus, beside Baudekin from Baghdad, we have Damask from Damascus, and Satin from Zaytoun in China [Yule]. Sindon, Syndon, Sendal, Sandalin, and Cendatus, from Scinde, Calico from Calicut, and Muslin from Mosul. Marco Polo, Book I. ch. v., of the kingdom of Mosul, writes, "All the cloths of gold and silver that are called Mosolins are made in this country; and those great "Merchants called Mosolins who carry for sale such quantities of spicery and pearls, and cloths of silk and gold, are also from this "kingdom." In his note (vol. i. p. 59) Colonel Yule observes: "We see here that mosolin or muslin has a very different meaning "from what it has now. A quotation from Ives, by Marsden, "shows it to have been applied in the middle ages to a strong "cotton cloth made at Mosul. Dozy says that the Arabs use

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"Maucili in the sense of muslin." Tartariums, Colonel Yule ["Marco Polo," i. 259] believes, were so called, "not because they 66 were made in Tartary, but because they were brought from "China through the Tartar dominions." Dante alludes to the supposed skill of Turks and Tartars in weaving_gorgeous stuffs; and Boccacio, commenting thereon, says that Tartarian cloths are so skilfully woven that no painter with his brush could equal them. Thus also Chaucer, as quoted by Colonel Yule :

"On every trumpe, hanging a broad banere

Of fine Tartarium."

دو

This is the cloth of gold which Marco Polo calls Nasich and Naques, and he evidently describes the primitive working of gold in strips into it where, Book II. ch. xiv., he writes: "Now on his birth"day, the Great Khan dresses in the best of his robes, all wrought " in beaten gold.' Buckram is said to be derived from Bokhara. The word occurs (Yule, "Marco Polo," i. 59) as Bocharani, Bucherani, and Boccassini. Fustian is said to be derived from Fostat, one of the medieval cities that form Cairo, and Taffeta and Tabby from a street in Baghdad. Baden Powell, however, in his list of cotton fabrics met with in the Punjab ["Punjab Manufactures,” vol. ii. p. 22], names taftá a fabric of twisted thread, made both in silk and cotton; and tafta in Persian means twisted, as bafta means woven. Perhaps the manufacture gave its name to the street in Baghdad where it was made. Cambric is from Cambray ; Sarcenet from the Saracens; Moire and Mohair from the Moors. Diaper is not, however, from d'Ypres in Flanders, but from a Low Greek word diampov [from Sasnaw, I separate], meaning "patterned," figured, diapered. Arras is from Arras; Cordwain from Cordova; and Nankeen from Nankin. Gauze is said to be from Gaza, Baize from Baiæ, and Dimity from Damietta. Cypresse is from Cyprus; and Frieze from Friesland; Jean from Jaen; Cloth of Rayne from Rennes; and Cloth of Tars from Tarsus, or perhaps Tabriz. Drugget is said to be from Drogheda ; Duck, that is Tuck [whence Tucker Street, Bristol], from Torques in Normandy. Bourde de Elisandre or Bourdalisandre from Alexandria; Worsted from Worsted in Norfolk; and Kerseymere ("Cashmere ") from Kersey, and Linsey-Wolsey from Linsey, two villages of Sussex. Gingham is said to be from Guingamp; Siclatoun is thought to be from Sicily. Chintz is derived from chint or chete, Hindu words for variegated, spotted, whence cheta; but I believe it to be derived from China, and that the weavers of Masulipatam first learned to stamp Chintz with its peculiar patterns from the silks landed at that port from China. Velvet and Samit are both fabrics of Eastern origin, and the etymology of the former word, in old English "velouette," is from the Italian vellute, fleecy, nappy, and Latin vellus a fleece; and of the latter, from "six," and μíto "threads," the number of threads in the warp of the texture. Camlet was originally probably woven of camels' hair. Under the Eastern Empire Chrysoclavus was the name given to old silks of rich dyes worked with the round nail head pattern in gold. The name Gammodion was given to silks patterned with

the Greek letter r; and when four of these letters were so placed as to form a St. George's cross, or a Filfot cross, the silk was termed Stauron, or Stauracinus, and Polystauron. De fundato were silks covered with a netted pattern in gold; and Stragulatæ were striped or barred silks, evidently derived originally from India. Tissue is cloth of gold or silver similar to Siclatoun, Tartarium or Naques, and the soneri and ruperi of India; and the flimsey, bluish paper called tissue-paper was originally made to place between the Tissue to prevent its fraying or tarnishing when folded up. Cloth of Pall would be any brocade used as an ensign, robe, or covering-pall of State, and generally means Baudekin. Camoca is the same word as kincob (kimkhwa). Shawl is the Sanscrit, sala, a floor, or room, because shawls were first used as carpets, hangings and coverlets. The word therefore is in its origin the same as the French salle and Italian salone, saloon, or large room. We must wait for Colonel Yule to give us the etymology of Bandana pocket handkerchiefs.

Cottons.

The cotton manufactures did not obtain a real footing in Europe until last century. At a date before history the art was carried from India to Assyria and Egypt; but the plant was not introduced into Southern Europe until the 13th century, where its wool was at first used to make paper. The manufacture of it into cloth in imitation of the fabrics of Egypt and India was first attempted by the Italian States in the 13th century; from which it was carried into the Low Countries, and thence passed over to England in the 17th century. In 1641 "Manchester cottons," made up in imitation of Indian cottons, were still made of wool. But in vain did Manchester attempt to compete on fair free trade principles with the printed calicoes of India, and gradually Indian chintzes became so generally worn in England, to the detriment of the woollen and flaxen manufactures of the country, as to excite popular feeling against them; and the Government, yielding to the clamour, passed the law, in 1721, which disgraced the statute book for a generation, prohibiting the wear of all printed calicoes whatever. It was modified in 1736 so far that calicoes were allowed to be worn, "provided the warp thereof was entirely of linen yarn." Previously to this, in 1700 a law had been passed by which all wrought silks, mixed stuffs, and figured calicoes, the "the manufacture of Persia, China, or the East Indies, were forbidden to be worn or otherwise used in Great Britain." It was particularly designed for the protection of the Spitalfields silk manufacture, but proved of little or no avail against the prodigious importation and tempting cheapness of Indian piece-goods at that time. Cotton was first manufactured in Scotland in 1676, and in Glasgow in 1738, and in Manchester the manufacture of printed calicoes was regularly established in 1764. Fustians dimities and vermilions from cotton-wool had, however, been made in London and in Manchester from 1641. After the invention of Arkwright's machine, in 1769, the production of Manchester

developed so rapidly as to make it very evident that the protection of manufactures against foreign competition was a violation of the first principles of political economy.

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We have seen that cotton is mentioned in the Bible (Esther i. 6) by its Sanscrit name, and "the white and blue cotton hangings described were probably imitations from, if not actually, Bengal satrangis. The Ramayana frequently mentions colored garments, and the way in which robes are represented colored on the Egyptian monuments in zig-zag stripes of different colours, green, yellow, blue, pink, is one of the most characteristic ways of dyeing cotton cloth in India. Herodotus, Book i. ch. 203, tells of a certain tribe of the Caspian: "In these forests certain trees are "said to grow, from the leaves of which, pounded and mixed "with water, the inhabitants make a dye, wherewith they paint upon their clothes the figures of animals, and the figures so impressed never wash out, but last as though they had been inwoven in the cloth from the first, and wear as long as the garment." Pliny, Book xxxv. ch. 42 (11), writes: "In Egypt "they employ a very remarkable process for the colouring of "tissues. After pressing the material, which is white at first, "they saturate it, not with colours, but with mordants that are "calculated to absorb colour. This done, the tissues, still un"changed in appearance, are plunged into a cauldron of boiling 66 dye, and are removed the next morning fully coloured. It is a "singular fact, too, that, although the dye in the pan is of an "uniform colour, the material when taken out of it is of various colours, according to the nature of the mordants that have been "respectively applied to it; these colours, too, will never wash " out."

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From Arrian we have seen that Evdoves, muslins; and 'Oóvia, cottons; Пepigwμata, sashes, Zavaι σKIWτaí, sashes striped with different colours; Πορφύραι, purple cloth; and Σινδόνες μολόχιναι, muslins of the colour of mallows, were exported in his time from India to all the ports on the Arabian and East African coasts. The Portuguese gave the name of Pintadoes to the chintzes of India when they first saw them at Calicut. Indeed the cotton tissues and stuffs of India have always been even more sought after for the beauty and brilliance of their natural dyes, than for the fineness and softness with which they are woven; and one of the greatest improvements in English textile manufactures would be the substitution of the rich deep-toned Indian dyes for the harsh flaring chemicals, especially of the Magenta series, at present in Mr. Wardle, of Leek, has paid great attention to this matter, especially in connexion with the application of dyes to the tusser silk of India.

use.

The Maharajah of Cashmere has, it is said, adopted an effectual plan for the suppression of the Magenta dyes within his kingdom. First, a duty of 45 per cent. is levied on them at the frontier; and at a certain distance within the frontier, they are confiscated and at once destroyed."

The great export cotton manufactures of India have long fallen before the competition of Manchester. Still, however, an immense

cotton manufacture, for domestic purposes, continues to exist in India, equal probably to the whole export trade of Manchester; and now that cotton mills are being established in Bombay and other cities, we may expect to see the tide of competition at last turned against Manchester. In consequence also of the improvement of national taste in this country, and the spread of higher education and culture among the natives of India, we may hope for a rapid increase in the demand for Indian hand-loom made and artistically dyed and printed piece goods. The true couleur d'ivoire is only found naturally in Indian cotton stuffs. Nothing could be more distinguished for the ball-room, nothing simpler for a cottage, than these cloths of unbleached cotton, with their exquisitely ornamented narrow borders in red, blue, or green silk. Native gentlemen and ladies should make it a point of culture never to wear any clothing or ornaments but of native manufacture and strictly native design, constantly purified by comparison with the best examples and the models furnished by the sculptures of Amravati, Sanchi, and Bharhut.

Surat is a town which suffered as much as any in India from the extinction of the East India Company's trading monopoly in 1833. "A new era was opened to English commerce," writes the historian, heedless of the two centuries of manufacturing activity and prosperity, under the Company's fostering rule, which had preceded it in India. But within the

last four or five years the cotton manufactures of Surat have begun to revive, and the Khatris or Hindu weavers have begun to make cloth of a new pattern, chiefly for bodices, which is largely exported to the Deccan.

Baroach, also, under the East India Company, was a great centre of cotton manufactures, from the stoutest canvas to the finest muslins ; but the industry was ruined by the unrestrained Manchester imports, and of the 30 odd varieties of cloths enumerated in the factory diary for 1777, now only six are made.

At Vizagapatam a strong cloth is made called punjam, that is, " 120 threads," and the cloth is denominated 10, 12, 14, up to 40 punjam, according to the number of times 120 is contained in the total number of threads in the warp. Dyed blue at Madras, it is exported to Brazil, the Mediterranean, and to London for the West Indies. Imitation Scotch checks and plaids are also made for the large population of poor native Christians in the Madras Presidency.

In the Godavery district most excellent cloths are made at Uppada near Coconada, and in the villages about Utapalli and Nursapore, and the fine turbands made at Uppada are still in great requisition. Tent cloth of superior quality is also manufactured in the villages near Rajamundri, and in the Central Jail. The weavers are however in a very impoverished condition, as their industry has languished and gradually declined ever since the abolition of the exclusive trade of the East India Company.

Formerly there was a large manufacture of blue salampores at Nellore, which was quite broken up by the West Indian Emancipation Act, for the freed negroes refused very naturally to wear the