the order of the Aryan exodus. The emigrants who had, between B.C. 3000 and 2000, made their way into India first settled on the Upper Indus [Vedas], where they appear to have quarrelled among themselves [Mahabharata], when some of them moved on to the Ganges and ultimately descended into the Deccan [Ramayana]. Others turned westward, and, following the southern slopes of the Hindu Kush and Elburz, and constantly joined by fresh emigrants from High Asia, first settled Media [the modern province of Azerbijan], where they came into contact with the Semitic populations which had already occupied Mesopotamia, Arabia, and Syria to the shores of the Mediterranean Sea, and afterwards Persia.

As other tribes pressed forward, Armenia, Pontus, Paphlagonia and Bithynia were occupied, and, crossing the Bosphorus, the "earth-born Pelasgians" planted their colonies in Thrace, Macedonia, Thessaly and Epirus, in the islands of the Egean Sea, in the Peloponnesus, and in Italy. A parallel emigration of Aryas and Semites would seem to have advanced in successive waves along a more southerly route, through the Cilician and Pamphylian mountains [Mount Taurus] into "sheep-feeding Phrygia," and the plains of Lydia, " distant Lycia," and Caria, and across the Ægean to Rhodes and Crete. Later the Hellenes, probably a predominant tribe of the Pelasgi, spread from Thessaly over the whole of Greece. In Central Europe the Celts came first, over the Caucasus and round the head of the Black Sea, and followed by the Teutons were pushed on into Gaul and Britain, Northern Italy and Spain. Calais, formerly written indifferently Caleys and Waleys, indicates the spot whence the surplus population of one of these Celtic settlements first crossed over to Britain. Wales is the "Pays de Galles": and Galicia in Austria, and Wallachia in Roumania, are said to have been the settlements of the Celtic horde which, three hundred years before Christ, pillaged Rome and Delphi, and, crossing the Bosphorus back into Asia, gave its name to Galatia.* The Sclavonians, who had advanced from beyond the Caspian and the Sea of Aral far towards Central Europe, were displaced eastward by the Teutons, of which race, also, were most of the tribes whose repeated irruptions at last broke up the fabric of the Roman Empire. But they were Aryas, whose destiny it was to purge civilisation, and not destroy it as did the later Turanian conquerors of the Eastern Empire.

As Rome fell the nations of modern Europe rose, developing with their rise a wider prosperity and, in many respects, a broader and more even civilisation than Greece and Rome ever knew; till in the 16th and 17th centuries they began to overflow the bounds of Europe, and to go forth to subdue India and the Eastern Archipelago, and to colonise America and Australasia, where now, at last, along all the shores of the Pacific

* Galata, a suburb of Constantinople, regarded by some as a vestige of the passage of this horde, is thought by others to be the Arabic kilah, a fort, found in Alcala in Spain, Calata in Sicily, and Khelat the capital of the Indian province of Baluchistan. See Taylor's "Words and Places."

Ocean, they are again brought face to face with that same dominant yellow Turanian race which has dogged their steps from the first day that they began their westward emigration from the high table-lands of Central Asia, which has held Constantinople against them and the whole pressure of the Sclavonic Aryas for 400 years, and which, some warning prophets threaten us, may yet subvert Aryan civilisation throughout the world as it has in India and Persia and over all Western Asia.

Five thousand years ago we see the Aryas first strike their tents on this momentous westward march, advancing always until they reach the shores of the outer Ocean stream; and after halting there for two thousand years, once more setting forward on a fresh migration, this time across the vast waters of the Atlantic, to search out that commerce of India, the tradition of which, probably, never altogether lost by them, would attract them even more than the actual commerce then in the hands of the Venetians.

Historical Dates.

More clearly to appreciate the relative force of the influences which have determined the character of Hindu and Indian art, it is necessary to review in somewhat greater detail the history of the states and nations of Southern and Western Asia, and the Mediterranean, with which India is connected, and this may perhaps be most conveniently done by a rapid enumeration of some leading dates. It will be recognised that the earlier of them are approximate only, and that many must be purely conjectural, and are given simply because it is often advisable to fix a time-mark. There is little connected, or even consistent, history before B.C. 1000, and few dates anterior to B.C. 500 can be accurately determined. Even stone monuments sometimes bear testimony rather to the falsehood of those who set them up than to the truth, which should prevail in history. Indeed, the longer they were likely to endure, the more inducement was there for falsifying them.

The Phoenicians are said to have first appeared on the shores of the Mediterranean from the Persian Gulf about B.C. 3000. Of the contemporary Egyptian and Babylonian kingdoms, which were the earliest political organisations, the date of the first native Egyptian dynasty is fixed about B.C. 2500, and of the Semitic Shepherd kings (Hyksos) B.C. 1750, and the restored (18th) native dynasty B.C. 1500. The commencement of the first, or Turanian period of the Babylonian kingdom, has also been fixed about B.C. 2300; and that of the Semitic period at B.C. 2000; Nineveh is said to have been founded B.C. 2200; and Babylon was captured by the Assyrians B.C. 1300, which is the date assigned for the commencement of the Assyrian Empire. Media was conquered by the Assyrians about B.C. 710, but was constantly in revolt, and B.C. 625 Cyaxares razed Nineveh to the ground, and reduced Assyria to a Median province. Babylon revolted under Nabopolassar B.C. 610, and was taken by Cyrus (who had already subjugated Media) B.C. 538; and the Persian Empire, which

Cyrus founded B.C. 559-529, was the first universal empire. Thothmes III. of the 18th Egyptian dynasty, and Rameses I. of the 19th, both led expeditions into Mesopotamia. Rameses the Great (II.), the grandson of Rameses I., and known also by the name of Sesostris, made the first canal between the Red Sea and Nile, which Pharaoh Necho, and Darius, and Ptolemy Philadelphus each afterwards attempted to re-open. About B.C. 1020," Hadad being but a little child," having escaped from the slaughter of his countrymen, the Edomites, by King David, "fled unto Pharaoh, King of Egypt;" and about B.C. 1000, Jeroboam "fled "into Egypt unto Shishak, King of Egypt, and was in Egypt "until the death of Solomon." Solomon kept the peace with all his neighbours, Phoenicia, Edom, Egypt, and Assyria, even though carrying on the closest commercial competition with them; but B.C. 971, in the fifth year of Rehoboam, Shishak invaded Judah, and pillaged Jerusalem. About B.C. 730, Sabaco, the So of the Bible, made a treaty with Hoshea, which, involving the refusal of the King of Israel to pay the tribute to Assyria exacted by Tiglath Pileser and Shalmaneser, led to the taking of Samaria by Sargon, and the captivity of the ten tribes, B.C. 721. During the reign of Tehrah, the Tirhaka of the Bible, Sennacherib attempted to invade Egypt, when Tehrah advanced into Syria and defeated the Assyrians. During the reign of Psammetichus, B.C. 671-617, there was an extraordinary development of the commerce and prosperity of Egypt, consequent on his wise policy in throwing its ports open to free trade; and, under his son Necho, a Phoenician fleet accomplished the circumnavigation of Africa twenty-one centuries before the glorious enterprise of Bartholomeo Diaz and Vasco Da Gama. Necho also invaded Syria, and, being opposed by Josiah, King of Judah, slew him at Megiddo, and returning victorious from Carchemish took Jehoahaz captive into Egypt, leaving his brother Jehoiakim king in his stead. Four years later Nebuchadnezzar retook from Necho all that he had conquered, from the river of Egypt to the Euphrates. His son was the Pharaoh Hophra of the Bible, with whom Zedekiah, who had been set up as King of Judah by Nebuchadnezzar, made a treaty, in the hope of throwing off the yoke of Babylon. Pharaoh Hophra besieged and took Gaza and Sidon, and obliged the Babylonians, "the Chaldæans that besieged Jerusalem," to retire; but, on his having immediately to withdraw his own army, Nebuchadnezzar returned, and capturing Jerusalem, B.C. 606, led Judah away captive into Babylonia, whence, after seventy years, they were restored by Cyrus B.Č. 536. Nebuchadnezzar sacked Tyre B.C. 586, and invaded Egypt. Cambyses conquered Egypt B.C. 526, and Xerxes subdued the revolt of Egypt B.C. 414. It successfully revolted under Amyrtæus against the Persians B.C. 411, was again reduced by Ochus, B.C. 350; and finally conquered by Alexander the Great, B.C. 332.

Of the four great tribes of the Hellenes, the Eolians, advancing from Thessaly, had occupied a great part of central Greece, as far as the Isthmus of Corinth, and of the western

coast of Peloponnesus; the Achæans established themselves in Mycena, Argos, and Sparta, and the Ionians chiefly in Attica and Doris. The Dorians were originally restricted to Doris; but, just as the Hellenes had become the predominant tribe over the Leleges, Caucones, and other Pelasgian tribes, so the Dorians became the predominant tribe over all the other Hellenes; and when they entered the Peloponnesus, about B.C. 1000, and overthrew the ancient Achæan monarchies of Homer's epics, many of the Ionians sailed away to Asia Minor, and founded colonies at Miletus, Ephesus, and other places on the coast of Lydia, while the fugitive Achæans founded the Eolic colonies in Lesbos, and along the coast of Mysia. Smyrna was originally an Æolic colony, but afterwards became an Ionian city. Subsequently, the Dorians established colonies in Rhodes and Cos, and founded the cities of Halicarnassus and Cnidus, on the opposite coast of Caria; and later still the Ionian [Phocæan] colonies were extended throughout the Mediterranean as far as Marseilles and Nimes, the Milesians encircling the Black Sea with their commercial establishments. Herodotus [Bk. I., ch. 163] says that the Phocœans of Ionia (originally from Phocis), were the first of the Greeks who made long voyages, and it was they who first made the Greeks acquainted with the Adriatic, and with Tyrrhenia, with Iberia and the city of Tartessus, (a colony of Tyre, the name of which signifies in the Phoenician tongue" the Younger Brother,") afterwards called Gadira, and now Cadiz.

Croesus, the King of Lydia, made himself master of the Ionian cities, B.C. 550, and was himself subdued by Cyrus, and Lydia made a province of the Persian Empire, B.Ĉ. 546. The Ionian cities were not disposed to submit, but were unable to make common cause against their enemy. Some were abandoned, and the rest, one by one, yielded, sacrificing their liberties and prosperity, as Bias told them, to their mutual jealousies. Thus having subjugated both Phoenicia and the Ionian colonies, Persia at once became a great naval power, threatening the rising commercial supremacy of Athens in the Mediterranean. When, therefore, Miletus revolted, B.C. 500, the Athenians immediately sent 20 ships to the assistance of Aristagoras, and the Eretrians two, and their troops uniting with the revolted Ionians burnt Sardis. At the battle of Lade, B.C. 496, the whole navy of the Ionians, 353 ships, was destroyed by the Phoenician navy; and then, having first reconquered the cities on the Ionian coast, the Persians determined to take vengeance on Athens and Eretria for their share in the burning of Sardis. The first expedition, under Mardonius, against Greece, B.C. 493, failed shamefully. The second, under Darius, B.C. 490, was defeated at Marathon. For the third, B.C. 480, Xerxes collected an overwhelming force, and it was only after Thermopyla had been lost, and Athens burnt, and Salaris and Platæa won, that Greece was saved by the courage and energy of Athens, and the patriotism of the minor States of the Peloponnesus, which had become accustomed to act together under Sparta. But for this Greece would have perished like the Ionian colonies.

H 22.

B

When Joshua, about B.C. 1450, led the children of Israel into Canaan or Phoenicia, Sidon was already "great Zidon," and Tyre, "the strong city of Tyre." He was opposed by a confederacy of the native states, led by the king of Hazor, whom he overthrew with great slaughter, and chased to the borders of Sidon [previously mentioned, Genesis x., 19, and xlix., 13], until he left none remaining; when he turned back and took Hazor, and slew the King thereof, "for Hazor aforetime was the head of all these kingdoms; "" and Joshua took all the land, the hills, "and all the south country, and all the land of Goshen, and "the valley, and the plain, *** from the Mount Halak that "goeth up to Seir, even unto Baal-gad in the valley of Lebanon "under Mount Hermon " [Joshua, ch. ix.]. Subsequently Israel became tributary to the Philistines until the time of King David.

A year before the fall of Troy [B.C. 1183] the Sidonians also were defeated by the Philistines, and forced to seek a refuge in Tyre; and it is from about this time that the history of the Phoenicians ceases to be mythical and gradually becomes authentic. From Abibal, the father of Hiram, to the foundation of Carthage, we have a regular succession of reigns and dates. The splendid reign of Hiram commenced about B.C. 1000 and lasted 34 years. His son reigned seven years and his grandson nine, when he was put to death by a usurper who reigned 12 years, and was then deposed in favour of the legitimate heir, Hiram's great-grandson, who reigned 12 years. He was succeeded by a brother who, after reigning nine years, was murdered by another brother, who, after a few months, was in turn assassinated by Ithobaal, a priest of Astarte, the "Ethbaal, King of the Zidonians" of the Bible, and father of Jezebel, the wife of Ahab, who sought to restore the worship of Baal and Ashtoreth and of "the groves" in Israel [1 Kings xvi., 31]. He reigned 32 years, and was succeeded by Badezor, his son, who reigned six years, and he by his son Mutto, who reigned 32 years; and was followed by his son Pygmalion, the father of Elissa or Dido, the founder and Queen of Carthage, about B.C. 878-793: the date of the foundation of Rome being fixed at B.C. 753. This was the great period of the maritime ascendancy of Tyre in the Mediterranean. About the end of the eighth century B.C., however, it became a fixed object of the Assyrians to obtain possession of Tyre, a policy which was pursued also by the Babylonians and Persians. Shalmaneser endeavoured, without effect, to reduce it by blockade; and its siege by Nebuchadnezzar, extending over 13 years, is one of the most memorable in history, and proved a terrible blow to the greatness and power of the Phoenicians.

Phoenicia was the fifth of the twenty satrapies into which the empire of Darius was divided, but its relations with the Persians would appear to have been those of an honourable alliance rather than of absolute subjection, since, while the Tyrians assisted Cambyses against the Egyptians, and Darius and Xerxes against the Greeks, they refused to make war on the Carthaginians, "their own children; " and Cambyses could not force them, "because upon the Phoenicians all his sea service depended;

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