istry responsible to the Emperor and their continuance in office independent of the diet, though the latter makes the laws and the appropriations. This German type, while safest for a transitional stage, is now yielding to the British one of responsibility to the parliament.

The local government is strongly centralized, as the 46 provinces are governed by officials of the central government, though local representative assemblies exercise some control, which will be increased as rapidly as the education of the people permits. The whole government scheme is thus a marvel of wise development in adaptation of Western models.

HISTORY.-After the expulsion of the feared and hated Portuguese in 1638, Japan remained isolated, except for a restricted trade with the Dutch, until 1854, when the American Commodore Perry forced a commercial treaty with it, which was quickly followed by others. The shogunate which had usurped imperial functions, while the Mikado remained in sacred seclusion, was abolished in 1867; and the failure of an insurrection established the Mikado's power in 1868. The feudal system was abolished in 1871. the Bonin Islands annexed in 1876, the Loochoos in 1879, the Satsuma rebellion quelled in 1877, the constitution promulgated in 1889, the first parliament met in 1890, war with China was begun in 1894 and ended with the acquisition of Formosa in 1895.

The Twelfth Japanese Diet met in 1898, under the premiership of Marquis Ito, "the Father of the Constitution," Japan's greatest statesman, then premier for the third time in twelve years, but who virtually rules whether in or out of office. This diet will be memorable for its enact

ment of the new civil, criminal and commercial codes of law, which the Powers required should begin operation at least one year before the revised treaties could be enforced. That part of the code dealing with the family, marriage and succession met with stout opposition as subverting the (patriarchal) family, and thus the current morality by introduction of Western individualism. Yet the code was finally accepted; for the Powers would not abandon their consular jurisdictions on the "concessions" or ceded territories in the open ports, until Japanese law approximated Western standards, and such abandonment had formed the goal of Japanese statesmanship for 25 years. The civil code carefully explains each of its 1,146 articles, and is on sale at 50 cents, so that it is as much the people's book as the lawyers. Americans may win such a boon in time! Once the code was enacted, much discussion arose as to the "mixed residence," i. e., of foreigners with Japanese throughout Japan, instead of in the treaty ports alone as heretofore. The problem involved such matters as prison reform, the abolition of concubinage, and the legal status of Christianity. This last could probably secure governmental recognition with some privileges, but must then submit to supervision.

political party which had not yet been practically realized under the constitution of 1889. This constitutional party formed the first party cabinet in Japan, but broke up from internal dissensions and mismanagement, thus ending the third cabinet in 1898! But the party principie had won, and the next cabinet showed it in an alliance between the imperial interests with General Yamagata as premier and the liberal faction of the constitutional party. Japan was the only power besides England to give entire sympathy to America in its struggle with Spain, and welcomed the American acquisition of the Philippines, which lessened the distance between the United States and Japan from 4,000 to 200 miles.

July 17th, 1899, duly saw the inauguration of the new treaties abolishing exterritoriality by the Powers in Japan. Then for the first time in history a non-Christian nation was entrusted with judicial authority over the subjects of Christian nations. The Emperor issued a proclamation of good will to foreigners; and the cabinet ministers notified their departments of the new duties. This was especially needed in the department of education, for students had for the past decade been notorious for their insulting language and demeanor to foreigners. The department of education is strangely enough most inimical also to Christianity, and this same year issued regulations against religious instruction in any schools whose curricula are regulated by law, even outside the regular course of instruction. Such regulations embarrass the several private colleges supported by Christian missions, and met with almost solid opposition from the native press. Meanwhile the officials of Shintoism, which is the primitive nature and ancestor worship of the Japanese, have announced that Shintoism is not a religion, but a system of rites in memory of the divine sovereigns of the Empire. Thus does the barbarian religion prepare for its final dissolution.

The course of 1900 has shown the residence of foreigners under Japanese laws with more friction than was to be expected after the Imperial rescripts of good will to foreigners. Especially business men in the ports have been much affected by the Japanese tax system. Japan distinguished herself again in war by her admirable co-operation with the Powers in the relief of Peking. General testimony concurs upon the splendid discipline, the endurance, the eagerness to be first, the self-restraint and the humanitarianism of her soldiers.

At the fourteenth diet, which closed in February, an important extension of the franchise was made, which is embodied in the account of the government given above.

Treaty revision and the sequent Chinese war had unified politics; but, these over, advocacy of party government including party cabinets came again to the fore, and in October Marquis Ito became premier for the fourth time on that principle, with the support of the old Liberals, 152 strong, while the Progressives, 120 in number, and under Count Okuma formed the opposition. Hitherto the average duration of a cabinet had been only eighteen months. The marriage of the Crown Prince, aged 21, to the Princess Sadako, aged 17 promises the continuation of the oldest dynasty in the world, and was celebrated by the foundation of an art museum in Tokio, and provision for several public parks. There has been a commendable discussion of moral

problems, and some progress in moral legislation which was much needed for the protection of helpless women. Marquis Ito's cabinet had been obliged, by stringency of the money market in Japan, to postpone some of the enterprises included in the post bellum programme of 1896; and the consequent disappointment caused its resignation in May, 1901. The veteran minister assumed the premiership unwillingly, and will now devote himself to the political drill of his party. On June 2, Viscount Katsura, formerly Minister of War, and enjoying the confidence of Marquis Ito, was appointed Premier in his place, with Mr. Sone as Minister of Finance.

On June 21, Hoshi Toru, a former cabinet minister, was assassinated by a political fanatic. He has been termed the Tom Reed of Japan. The incident recalls the assassination of Minister Okubo in 1878, and of Viscount Mori, likewise then in the cabinet, in 1890.

COMMERCE. The history of Japanese commerce shows that both imports and exports have about doubled every ten years since 1868. This has been accomplished under a free trade policy, until July, 1899, enforced by the Powers at an average tariff on imports of 5 per cent. ad valorem, and since then somewhat higher under native

from the United States, $8,932,000 from British India, $6,224,000 from China, and $734,000 from Egypt. Cotton yarns and piece-goods came almost entirely from the United Kingdom. Raw wool came chiefly from Germany, Belgium and Australia; "mousseline de laine" from France, Germany and Switzerland; Italian cloths almost entirely from the United Kingdom; flannels almost wholly from Germany; and woolen cloths from the United Kingdom and Germany. Among the metals and manufactures thereof the United States leads in rails and nails; the United Kingdom in machinery, engines, locomotives, and many other articles; and Belgium in bar and rod iron. The paper comes chiefly from Germany, the United Kingdom and Austria; leather from the United States and British India; the sugar from Hong Kong (40 per cent.), Germany and Austria; rice from Corea and Saigon; beans, peas and pulse from China and Corea; and kerosene chiefly (80 per cent.) from the United States.

ARTICLE

EXPORTS

$31,314,000 $22,328,000 2,037,000 2,081,000 7,900,000 8,718,000

2,457,000

2,598,000

7,583,000 10,016,000

5,692,000

6,363,000

288,000

349,000

139,000

226,000

77,000

112,000

104,000

54,000

105,000

162,000

14,261,000

10,300,000

Tea, chiefly green

Matches

Cuttle fish, fish oil, beche

de mer, etc..

Straw plaits..

Rice

5,141,000 1,889,000

Matting, floor

Camphor.

The destination of these exports is as follows: Of the raw silk the United States took $13,360,000 worth, France, $5,430,000, and Italy $3,046,000; and of the manufactured silk the United States took $2,974,000, Hong Kong, $2,466,000, France, $2,216,000. Cotton yarns and tissues go almost entirely to China, Corea and Hong Kong. Matches go to China, Hong Kong and British India; matting almost all to the United States, and most of the porcelain and earthenware; straw plaits to the United Kingdom and the

VISCOUNT KATSURA. Premier and Minister of Finance.

was most exceptional in the line of imports for the reason given. Foreign imports, Mr. Lyon thinks, will soon return to their normal condition of increase, although the rate thereof will be slightly lessened on account of the higher tariff. There was a falling off in a number of important lines of import, as compared with 1898. In pig iron, rails, and locomotives, shipments from the United States have decreased. Imports of nails and iron pipes, on the other hand, are increasing, and in electric apparatus and bicycles America leads. Several shipments of Virginia coal have been made to Japan in the last year, the quality of which is said to compare favorably with the expensive English coals.

Consul General Bellows says:

"Perhaps never in the history of the world has any country made more rapid progress than Japan has made during the past forty years, but just at present this development seems to be at a standstill. The volume of foreign commerce has increased but slightly in the past four years, nor can it be hoped that it will increase much

until certain changes have been brought about in the life, industrial habits, and temper of the people. Imports now exceed exports, and freight steamers from American seaports come to Japan and eastern Asia with full cargoes and return only partially laden. This increases freight rates and yet leaves only a small margin of profit for the owners of steamship lines, while lack of tonnage is a constant source of annoyance to Japanese importers. For this reason, and be

ADMIRAL YAMAMOTO. Minister of the Navy.

cause no nation can prosper if it continually buys more than it sells, it is evident that Japan must produce more merchandise for export if she is to increase her commerce. Two conditions at present prevent her doing this-the high cost of production and the temper of the people. We are accustomed to think that labor is cheap in Japan. Counted by expenditure of muscular effort it is very cheap, but taking the results attained into consideration it is much dearer than in America or Europe. Until the Japanese learn to adopt the mechanical labor-saving appliances of Western nations, they can scarcely hope to compete successfully in the markets of the world.

"Although the Japanese long ago admitted foreigners to their country and the more enlightened are rapidly taking up foreign ideas, the great mass of the people are jealous of outside influences, and the laws as enacted and administered are unfavorable to the investment of foreign capital."

Consul Lyon notes that the influx of foreign capital expected in consequence of the new treaties has not taken place, and the Japanese recognize that it will not be forthcoming, until facilitated by the passage of such laws in relation to the ownership of land in the country as can be more clearly understood by foreign investors. There will probably be legislation on the subject in the near future. Railway shares may now be owned and registered in the name of foreigners, and this, the consul thinks, is probably an entering wedge which will facilitate the introduction of other progressive measures.

Consul Davidson says that the island of Formosa is of no little importance to the United States, as nearly $3,000,000 are sent annually from our country to purchase tea, and nearly all the camphor consumed in the United States is of Formosa production. Among the imports American flour has a large and increasing consumption; American kerosene is replacing the native oils as an illuminant; American locomotives are running over American rails and across American steel bridges, and a number of other American products are found in the stores. Through the efforts of the consulate, our groceries, wines, hardware, bicycles, cameras, electrical novelties, watches, stoves, typewriters, blankets, etc., have been introduced, and though the demand is not yet large, there is a promising future for them. Including the value of materials supplied to the Formosa government, the imports from the United States in 1899 were valued at $691,800, against $732,300 from Great Britain. These figures show an increase, as compared with 1896, of nearly 30 per cent. for Great Britain and over 133 per cent for the United States. Compared with 1894, the last year of the Chinese régime, they show a very slight increase for Great Britain and nearly 400 per cent. for the United States: and compared. with 1898 our trade shows an increase of 60 per cent.

RAILWAYS.-These began in 1872 with a line from Yokohama to Tokio, but in 1901 aggregate 3,766 miles with a capital of about $246,000,000 divided among 58 private railway companies, and 2,063 miles with a capital of about $184,000,000 belonging to the government. Of the total of 5,829 miles there are in operation 3,638, the balance being under construction. In 1900 the fares reached about $23,000,000, and the freight receipts about $12,500,000, which showed an increase over the previous year of 19.2 per cent. on fares and 24.4 per cent. on freight receipts. It is now necessary to stop extension and consolidate what is in hand.

PROSPECTS FOR TRADE.-The chief field for the commerce of Japan already as in the future is China, where she keenly rivals England, Germany and America. Hence she shares the desire of England and America to maintain "the open door," which Russia, France, and Germany incline to reject. The exports of Japan to China already equal our own, and Japan and America also stand highest in the Chinese regard. Especially will Japan prove the most formidable rival to America in competing for the vast coming trade of the Yangtse Kiang River, one of the richest portions of the globe. While not yet inventors, the Japanese are wonderful mechanical adapters, and readily use imported American machinery to make molds for castings which will compete with ours throughout Asia, and often under the American name. Working models of such articles are shown in commercial museums at minimum prices, while the freight rates from Japan are of course far lower than those from the West or America. The Nippon Yusen Kaisha maintains regular lines to our Pacific Coast, to London, Peru, Australia, India, the Philippines, Siberia, and every Chinese open port. This subsidized line now carries flour from the Pacific Coast to Japan for $3 a ton, which is $5 less than heretofore, and has thus opened a market to American flour now worth $6,000,000 annually. To compete with it the Great Northern Railway has constructed four steamers of 28,000

tons each, to connect the termini of our transcontinental lines at Puget Sound with those of the trans-Siberian Railway at Vladivostok. Utilization of the abundant water power in Japan will further promote her industrial importance; and guilds of artisans and manufacturers are organizing to maintain a high standard in their goods.

NAVY.-Japan, like the United States, has recently attained the distinction of being a great naval power; and shares with her again the advantage offered by progressive science and industry to ships recently constructed. Her war with China in 1894-95 and the loss of some of her winnings to Russia from want of a navy to secure them, confirmed Japan in her purpose to form one, and accordingly in 1896 she planned for a navy of 117 vessels to be ready in ten years at a cost of $105,000,000. These were almost all ready for service in May, 1901, and comprise the following vessels: Six first class battleships of the most modern type, all built in Great Britain, one second-class and one thirdclass battleship, 3 coast defense vessels, 7 armored cruisers, 18 protected cruisers, 16 smaller cruisers and gunboats, 3 torpedo gunvessels, 1 torpedo depot ship, 12 torpedo-boat destroyers, about 70 torpedo-boats, with the usual complement of various small craft. Among these the "Mikasa" was considered the most powerful battleship in the world, when launched last year, and the "Hatsuse" was conceded by the English to be the finest vessel present at the Queen's funeral pageant. In addition to this navy Japan controls a fleet of 33 steamers belonging to the Nippon Yusen Kaisha. As a whole the navy is excellent, being provided with ships of all classes in right proportion. The deficient coal capacity is still ample for a fleet destined to operate no further

than the Western Pacific. The personnel of this navy about equals that of the American one, 709 officers and 23,000 men, of whose courage and skill there is no doubt. Japan can now build any ship she needs up to cruisers, and has refrained from preparing to build battleships only because it would cost so much to import the materials. ARMY.-The last official report for the year 1898, is as follows:

RELATION TO RUSSIA.-The imperative need for increased territory by over-crowded Japan can best be met by the near and undeveloped Corea. Accordingly at the close of her war with China in 1895 Japan secured cession of the Liaotung Peninsula; but was hindered from taking possession of it by Russia, backed of course by France, and in this case by Germany, on the ground that possession of Port Arthur involved control of Peking. Three years later however Russia did not refrain from seizing Port Arthur herself, and has since then so aggrandized at the expense of Japan and her natural ally, England, that Japan is deeply stirred. Count Okuma voices a common view that Japan must strike a decisive blow at Russia, now while the Siberian railway is incomplete and Manchuria's resources of coal, iron and men are undeveloped. Both the army and navy of Japan are more effective than those that Russia can summon to the Far East, and those Japanese that co-operated

with Russians against the Chinese could not fail to perceive their own moral and military superiority. Only one thing defers the inevitable conflict: England, who is necessary to keep France and Germany neutral, is pre-occupied in South Africa. England's necessity there has proved Russia's opportunity in the East. Equally the interests and sympathies of America will go with England; and its still needed care for its god-child, the free and progressive Japan can only confirm its repulsion from the barbarous force of Russia. Meanwhile the Siberian Railway is nearing completion, so that by use of the Amur River passengers can be booked from Moscow to Vladivostok, and immigration is being encouraged by a nominal fare of $12 for the run of 6,000 miles! In consequence of this provision the number of recent Russian immigrants exceeds all precedent.

EDMUND BUCKLEY, PH.D.,
The University of Chicago.