whence it was usual to embark for Britain in the middle ages, and whence is the shortest passage to the South Foreland cliffs (30 Roman miles or 28 English). The question of his startingplace is open in the first expedition, as his vessels (80 in number) left two ports, and Cæsar does not name them. The legions were the seventh and the tenth, the number of men 8000 (or 10,200 according to Napoleon III.), and he crossed the night between August 24th and 25th. Finding the cliffs too high he proceeded seven or eight Roman miles along the coast, and landed, in Long's opinion, at Deal, probably between Deal and Walmer Castle at 4.30, August 25th (B.c. 55).

The sea began to ebb at 5 a.m., and the rocks called Malms were uncovered by the tide. The landing was difficult, and there was fighting in the waves, for a large force of Britons was at hand to oppose him. These same painted Britons, with their war-chariots, had descried the approach of Cæsar from the cliffs, and hastened down to oppose him. The ships, on account of their size, could only cast anchor in deep water, and the Roman soldiers, with hands encumbered and bodies loaded with arms, were obliged to throw themselves in the sea and fight in the

waves.

The enemy knowing the ground, and lighter armed, posted on the edge of the water, or advancing a little way in the waves, hurled their missiles at the legionaries and pushed their docile horses into the tide. Thus placed in difficulties Cæsar sent in his light galleys into shallow water and caused the Britons to be attacked with slings, arrows, and darts. But as the Romans still hesitated, the standard-bearer of the tenth legion leapt into the sea, and followed by his men, an obstinate fight ensued. But there was much confusion in the legion, as the soldiers could not keep their footing till Cæsar sent forward light vessels and other troops; when, having gained a footing on firm ground, the Romans rushed forward and put the Britons to flight, but pursuit was impossible, as Cæsar's cavalry had not arrived.

A legionary, Cosius Scova, distinguished himself greatly on this occasion. With a boat and four comrades he had reached the rocks called Malms, and thence harassed the army with his missiles. When the Britons rushed through the ebb tide to attack him, his comrades fled to the boat, but Scova, firm at his post, made a heroic defence and killed several of his enemies, till pierced by an arrow, his face contused by the blow of a stone, and his casque broken to pieces, his shield also riddled with holes, he swam back to his companions. When he reached

Cæsar, he begged pardon for having lost his shield, but the great general loaded him with praise, and named him centurion.

We cannot pursue the details of Cæsar's first invasion. He encamped in the fertile corn plain behind Deal, and the natives sued for peace. Cæsar pardoned them for certain acts of hostility, demanded hostages, some of whom were delivered, and the Britons going to their homes, all seemed peace.

But a violent tempest arising soon after dispersed the eighteen ships with Cæsar's cavalry, and injured many of the other transports, occasioning great alarm in the Roman camp, for Cæsar had no supplies or materials with him. The British chiefs profiting by this disaster formed a new league, and fell suddenly on soldiers of the seventh legion engaged in cutting grain. Cæsar restored confidence at the head of his cohorts, but did not judge it prudent to risk a battle, and heavy rains rendered all operations impossible. After inflicting some loss on the Britons with a few horse he had in camp, another treaty was concluded, and as the equinox approached, Cæsar resolved to take advantage of a return of fine weather, and sailed back to Gaul, having been absent eighteen days.

The successes of Cæsar elicited the greatest signs of admiration at Rome, and he passed the winter preparing for his second invasion of England.

CHAPTER XXV.

SECOND INVASION OF ENGLAND (B.O. 54).

In his second expedition Cæsar had above 20,000 fighting men, 2000 cavalry, and 800 craft of all sizes. He was detained twentyfive days at Portus Itius by a north-west wind (or ventus corus). On the night of his passage Cæsar was carried by the tide, drifting outside the Goodwin, off the North Foreland. Then following the change of tide he rowed to the part of the shore where he had landed the year before. There is not any place except Deal that will correspond to the landing-place of Cæsar in his second expedition. The river at twelve miles' distance, the probable position of Cæsar's camp and lines and the nature of the country about Deal, all concur in pointing out Deal as his landing-place.

After fixing on the site for a camp he went inland twelve miles, and came to a river, the natives being posted on high

ground on the opposite bank. This river appears to be the Stour, and the west bank at Grove Ferry answers to this description. Water was necessary for his men, and he could find it nowhere in abundance except in the Stour. He probably fixed his camp near Sandwich, about Richborough. After his ships were hauled up, he united the naval camp and the other camp by a line of defence-a very laborious undertaking. He was thus protected on the east by the sea, on the north by the Stour; it is also a very fertile corn tract, the country containing some of the best wheat land in England, and Cæsar found here an abundant supply of corn. It is added that the country at the back of Deal is level and dry, and well adapted for the movements of the British war-chariots.

The following summary gives a bird's-eye view of Cæsar's second campaign in Britain. He embarked at Boulogne or Wissant, July 20th, landed at Deal, July 21st, engaged the Britons July 22nd, at Kingston, by the little Stour, returned to the fleet, July 23rd, employed ten days in reparations, July 24th to August 2nd, and then marched anew against the Britons, August 3rd.

August 3rd, he engaged the Britons again; August 4th, following probably the Weald of Kent, up the Valley of the Stour, past Canterbury, to Ashford, and thence by Tunbridge to Dorking, and down the valley of the Mole, to Hampton. (August 5th to August 11th.)

From August 12th to August 15th, Cæsar marched to attack the oppidum or town of Cassivelaunus. Negotiations occupied eight days, August 16th to August 23rd. Cæsar returned towards the sea-coast, and wrote to Q. Cicero, on his joining the fleet, August 28. The Roman army marched to the coast from August 24th to September 10th, and all embarked September 21st.

We cannot enter into the details of this march, but we subjoin one or two episodes in illustration of the warfare.

The distance from Deal to Cowey Stakes, where Cæsar crossed the Thames, is reckoned by the Romans at eighty miles. He was slightly harassed on the march by the Britons, especially with their war-chariots, but the advantage being generally with the Romans, Cassivelaunus fell back to his oppidum, St. Albans, while several British tribes submitted to the conqueror. Though fortified, in a formidable position, and occupied by a large force, St. Albans was easily carried, and all the natives were slain or captured.

The strategy of Cassivelaunus was to cut off Cæsar from his fleet, by causing an attack of four kings of Kent, Cingetorix, Carvilius, Taximagulus, and Sogovax, on the camp. But the cohorts did not allow them time to attack; they made a sally, slew a great many Britons, took one of their chiefs, Lugotorix, and re-entered the camp without loss. After this reverse, Cassivelaunus offered his submission, and Cæsar, hearing of revolts in Gaul, fixed the tribute to be paid by the Britons, received his hostages, and with many prisoners, returned to the Continent, losing sixty vessels out of his two convoys.

INSURRECTION IN GAUL.

One corps

Cæsar found his presence much required in Gaul. of Romans, under Sabinus and Cotta, had been drawn into a trap, and nearly destroyed by the Eburones, near Treves. Q. Cicero, with another corps, was closely blockaded in his camp by Ambiorix; but Cæsar, at Amiens, heard of his stress, and advanced to relieve him, when reduced to the last extremity, after a heroic resistance. Two dashing achievements had thrown a lustre over these operations. Of the few soldiers of Sabinus and Cotta who escaped the massacre near Tongres, the ensignbearer, P. Petrosidius, pressed by a crowd of enemies, threw his eagle into the entrenchments, and died defending himself bravely at the foot of the ramparts. In the legion of Cicero there were two centurions, T. Pulio and L. Vorenus, who rivalled each other in bravery by rushing into the midst of the enemy. Alternately thrown down, and encompassed by enemies, they rescued each other several times, and returned to camp without wounds, a result partly to be attributed to the immunity given to soldiers by defensive armour.

But we must hasten to the great episodes of the Gaulish war. Cæsar, after reducing the refractory tribes, crushing the Eburones, and punishing some Germans ravaging the territory of the Suevi (B.C. 53), had to encounter another insurrection of the Gauls in B.C. 52.

GERGOVIA AND ALESIA (B.C. 52).

Vercingetorix, a young man of noble family, of the Arverni, and far the ablest of the Gaulish generals, was the mainspring of this fresh insurrection. On no occasion had the Gauls appeared to be so united against Rome, and all Cæsar's conquests appeared on the point of being lost. The country of the Carnuti was the focus of the insurrection. All the Romans settled at

Genabum (Orleans), a large commercial city on the Loire, were murdered, and the same day this news was carried 150 miles, to Gergovia. Hereupon, Vercingetorix, who lived there, fomented the insurrection, obtained the supreme command, and summoned a general council of the confederate states.

The plan of Vercingetorix was ably conceived. One of his lieutenants, Lucterius, marched south, to invade the Roman province (B.C. 52), while he marched north against the legions. But never did Cæsar appear more terrible than in his rapid strokes at this time. Arranging measures for the defence of the provinces, he drove out the enemy, crossed the Cevennes, obstructed by snow to the depth of six feet, and carried desolation into the territory of the Arverni.

Then he reduced the Æduans to order; after this, blow followed blow. Genabum was taken, and all its people slain or sold. In a single day, twenty cities of the Bituriges were set on fire by the people themselves, and many others imitated this heroic example. But Avaricum, the capital of the country, was spared by the people. Cæsar hastened thither in twenty-five days; the Romans erected towers for attack, with a terrace 330 feet long, and eighty high. Cæsar relates that, in resisting this attack, to destroy this work, a Gaul placed before a gate, threw balls of grease and pitch, to increase the fire they kindled. When this Gaul was struck, and fell, another filled his place, and a succession of men occupied this post of danger one after the other, as they fell. At length the town was taken, and only 800 survived of its 40,000 inhabitants.

Labienus, lieutenant of Cæsar, was now sent against the Senones and Parisii, while the proconsul marched against Gergovia, the capital of the Arverni (now Clermont). But the town was protected by Vercingetorix; an attack against it failed, and, but for the tenth legion, the Roman army would have been lost. Then Cæsar decided to join Labienus; but his march resembled a flight; and the Æduans, thinking him lost, massacred all his recruits, and the Italian merchants in their towns. Cæsar was in eminent peril. He was advised to retire to the Roman province. But if he were vanquished in Gaul, he would be proscribed at Rome. Cæsar plunged into the heart of Gaul, marching north, leaving 100,000 Gauls between him and Narbonnese Gaul.

Labienus had first made an attempt to attack Paris (Lutetia); but it was with difficulty he could extricate himself from his numerous enemies, and join Cæsar in the territory of the Senones, where he met Cæsar. Soon after, Cæsar, aided by auxiliary